|1177  I  November  20  1909 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


FARMERS'  BULLETIN  375. 


:are  of  food  in  the  home. 


[Corrected  to  March  25,  1910.] 


BY 


Mrs.    MARY    KIXMAN   ABEL. 


PREPARED  CNDER  THE  SUPERVISION  OF  THE  OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 

A.  C.  TRUE,  Director. 


srrY  &t  CAUFO* 

IjOS  ANGELES 
LZBRAB  I 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT     PRINTING    OFFICE 
19   10. 


L  O0t>    010    7Z3     3 


TX 
GO  \ 

A  )A    ■ 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 

Washington,  D.  C,  April  14,  1909. 
Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith,  and  recommend  for 
publication  as  a  Farmers'  Bulletin,  an  article  on  household  methods 
of  handling  and  storing  food,  by  Mrs.  Mary  Hinman  Abel. 

In  this  bulletin  Mrs.  Abel  has  summarized  the  results  of  experi- 
ments and  tests  specially  undertaken  for  it,  as  well  as  experience 
obtained  in  the  practical  handling  of  such  problems.  The  informa- 
tion thus  collected  has  been  supplemented  by  general  data  gathered 
from  the  publications  of  the  agricultural  experiment  stations,  agri- 
cultural colleges,  reports  of  state  boards  of  health,  government 
documents,  and  other  sources  of  information. 

The  questions  considered  have  to  do  with  the  economical  use  in 
the  home  of  the  products  of  the  farm,  dairy,  and  garden,  and  also 
with  the  subject  of  household  hygiene.  These  are  subjects  of  interest 
to  the  housekeeper  in  both  rural  regions  and  town,  and  the  bulletin 
has  been  prepared  with  a  view  to  meeting  the  numerous  requests 
received  at  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  information  along  such 
lines. 

Respectfully, 

A.  C.  True, 

Director. 
Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 
375  3 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Introduction 7 

Yeasts,  molds,  and  bacteria,  and  the  spoiling  of  food 7 

The  nature  of  yeasts,  molds,  and  bacteria 7 

Yeasts  and  their  utilization 8 

Molds  and  their  prevention 9 

Bacteria  and  how  to  control  them 10 

Ptomaine  poisoning 11 

Disease  "germs"  and  polluted  water 12 

The  necessity  of  caution  in  the  use  of  raw  foods 13 

Mies  and  food 14 

Best  in  its  relation  to  food 17 

Pet  animals  in  the  kitchen 18 

The  food  supply 19 

Clean  shops  and  markets  a  necessity 20 

Sanitation  of  bakeries 21 

The  quality  of  meats 23 

The  true  price  of  meats 23 

Poultry '. 23 

Fish .• 24 

Vegetables 24 

The  storage  of  food 26 

Commercial  cold  storage 26 

The  storeroom  in  the  home 27 

Hot-weather  storage 28 

Ice  machine 29 

Ice  chests 29 

Care  of  ice  chests 29 

Water  for  cooling  food 30 

Winter  storage  of  food 31 

A  window  storage  box 31 

The  keeping  of  vegetables,  fruits,  and  meats 33 

Storage  of  groceries,  meats,  cooked  food,  and  canned  goods 34 

Bread  and  other  cooked  foods 35 

Canned  fruits  and  other  canned  goods 36 

Labeling  foods  in  packages  and  cans 37 

Care  and  utilization  of  fats 37 

Handling  of  food  and  utensils  in  the  kitchen 38 

Meats 38 

Poultry ■ 39 

Washing  vegetables 39 

Washing  fruits 40 

Washing  eggs 41 

Dishwashing 41 

Care  of  the  water  cooler 42 

Personal  cleanliness  in  the  kitchen 43 

Use  of  paper  in  the  kitchen 44 

ilmportance  of  good  house  plans  and  home  conveniences 44 

Cleanliness  in  public  eating  places 45 

375  5 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Tagp. 

Fig.  1.  Cellar  window  constructed  to  secure  ventilation 28 

2.  Window  box  for  storage  of  food... 32 

375  * 

6 


CARE  OF  FOOD  IN  THE  HOME. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  Ionian  who  presides  over  a  household  should  consider  as 
one  of  her  most  important  functions  the  purchase  of  food  and  its 
storage  preliminary  to  use  in  the  kitchen.  Should  she  be  living  on 
a  farm  she  will  buy  less  in  amount  than  the  woman  who  lives  in  the 
town  or  city,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  storage  of  food  will  de- 
mand more  of  her  attention.  In  both  cases,  if  intelligence  and  care 
are  lacking,  financial  loss  will  ensue  and  the  family  table  will  be 
less  attractive  and  wholesome  than  it  should  be. 

Most  families  have  traditions  and  well-established  customs  to 
guide  them  in  the  handling  and  storing  of  foods,  but  since  the  cus- 
toms of  one  family  may  differ  widely  from  those  of  another,  it  is 
well  to  examine  and  compare  them  in  order  to  select  the  best.  Scien- 
tific investigation  has  also  thrown  light  on  many  of  the  processes 
concerned  and  the  result  of  such  labors  should  be  at  the  service  of 
the  householder.  The  health  and  efficiency  of  the  family  is  the 
chief  object  of  her  care,  and  it  is  an  end  well  worth  the  effort. 

YEASTS,  MOLDS,  AND  BACTERIA,  AND  THE  SPOILING  OF  FOOD. 

In  the  buying,  storing,  and  handling  of  food  it  is  most  important 
that  we  realize  the  causes  of  what  is  called  the  '  Spoiling "  of  food. 
This  knowledge  is  comparatively  recent. 

THE  NATURE  OF  YEASTS,  MOLDS,  AND  BACTERIA. 

Countless  numbers  of  tiny  living  things  called  micro-organisms,  a 
word  meaning  simply  "small  living  things,"  are  everywhere  found 
which  will  grow  in  the  food  man  has  prepared  for  his  own  use  and 
cause  it  to  spoil.  Indeed,  the  kind  of  food  required  by  man  and 
animals  seems  to  be  that  which  is  also  best  suited  to  these  micro- 
scopic plants. 

It  is  this  very  demand  for  highly  organized  food  which  brings  them 
into  such  close  relation  to  all  problems  that  concern  the  food  of  man. 
These  microscopic  plants  flourish  in  the  kitchen,  storeroom,  ice  box, 

375  7 


8  CAKE   OF  FOOD  IN   THE  HOME. 

milk  room,  and  cellar.  If  the  conditions  are  favorable  they  repro- 
duce themselves  with  incredible  rapidity,  one  bacterium  in  the 
course  of  a  da}'  producing  a  million  more  minute  plants  like  itself. 
The  bulk  of  these  minute  forms  of  life  are  harmless,  at  least  under 
usual  conditions;  some  are  useful,  like  those  which  ripen  milk;  and 
many  are  harmful,  since  they  cause  waste  or  may  be,  what  is  much 
more  serious,  a  direct  cause  of  disease. 

Molds,  yeasts,  and  bacteria  may  be  found  in  the  cleanest  room, 
but  they  exist  in  far  greater  numbers  in  dirty  quarters,  where,  for 
instance,  crumbs  of  food  have  been  allowed  to  decay  and  dust  to 
accumulate.  Not  only  do  the  micro-organisms  appropriate  our 
food,  with  the  result  that  the  food  sours,  rots,  or  putrefies,  but  they 
sometimes,  in  addition,  leave  behind  disagreeable  consequences  like 
the  musty  and  moldy  odor  and  flavor  of  some  spoiled  foods,  or  the 
substances  called  ptomaines,  which  are  sometimes  poisonous.  The 
housekeeper's  success  in  preserving  food  from  deterioration  de- 
pends very  largely  on  her  ability  to  reduce  the  number  of  these  un- 
bidden guests  to  the  lowest  possible  limit. 

The  science  of  bacteriology  has  given  us  a  new  meaning  for  the 
scrubbing,  airing,  and  sunning  that  for  many  generations  good 
housekeepers  have  successfully  practiced;  it  shows  us  that  the 
storing  and  handling  of  foods  are  essentially  bacteriological  ques- 
tions, and  on  that  account  some  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  these 
microscopic  plants  is  here  in  order. 

YEASTS  AND  TEuEIH  UTILIZATION. 

Not  until  millions  of  yeast  cells  are  massed  together  do  they  be- 
come visible  to  the  eye  as  in  the  compressed  yeast  cake.  Yeast 
plants  are  practically  everywhere  and  are  of  many  varieties,  some 
being  called  "wild  yeasts,"  in  distinction  from  those  we  have  learned 
to  cultivate  for  the  making  of  bread  and  brewing  of  beer,  and  the 
fermentation  of  wine  and  cider.  The  old-fashioned  method  of  making 
"milk-rising"  or"  "salt-rising"  bread  depended  on  wild  yeast  fall- 
ing into  the  dough  and  causing  the  bread  to  rise,  a  method  not 
always  successful,  because  other  organisms,  the  bacteria,  also  had  a 
chance  at  the  dough  and  sometimes  got  the  better  of  the  yeast  in 
the  struggle  for  food,  and  the  result  of  their  life  in  the  dough  was 
sour  or  bitter  bread. 

Even  when  we  are  able  to  utilize  the  life  processes  of  the  yeast 
plant,  its  good  oflices  are  paid  for  with  a  certain  amount  of  food 
material:  thus,  when  introduced  into  the  bread  dough  it  breaks  up 
part  of  the  sugar  present  into  alcohol  and  carbonic-acid  gas,  and  the 
gas  becomes  tangled  and  stretches  out  in  the  glutenous  mass,  making 
the  porous  loaf  which  at  the  right  moment  is  stiffened  by  the  heat  of 
the  oven. 

375 


CARE   OF   FOOD   IX    THE   HOME.  9 

In  the  same  way  the  wild  yeast  attacks  the  sugar  in  the  stewed 
fruit  that  has  stood  exposed  on  a  warm  day,  or  the  jelly  left  un- 
covered, or  sometimes  even  when  apparently  covered,  only  in  these 
cases  the  gas  evolved  serves  no  useful  purpose  and  the  fermentation 
ruins  the  taste  of  the  food. 

Yeasts  grow  best  at  a  temperature  of  70  to  90°  F.;  therefore,  food 
that  is  to  be  protected  from  their  action  must  be  kept  well  below  this 
point . 

MOLDS  AND  THEIR  PREVENTION. 

The  appearance  of  mold  as  growing  on  bread,  cheese,  and  other 
foods  is  familiar  to  every  housewife;  mildew  on  cloth  is  a  less  com- 
monly recognized  form  of  mold. 

The  spores  (i.  e.,  the  minute  reproductive  bodies)  of  the  different 
varieties  of  mold  are  everywhere  present,  and  they  need  only  warmth 
and  moisture  to  enable  them  to  grow  on  many  kinds  of  food.  These 
organisms  are  always  at  work  in  damp  cellars  and  in  dark  and 
damp  corners  of  rooms;  they  are  borne  on  the  feet  of  insects,  they 
are  on  the  skins  of  all  fruits,  and  in  the  dust  flying  in  the  air.  They 
are  not  fond  of  light  and  they  require  no  great  abundance  of  air, 
flourishing  best  in  foods  that  are  piled  close  together,  leaving  small 
undisturbed  air  spaces  and  moisture.  They  always  start  on  the 
surface  and  throw  their  thread-like  filaments  down  into  the  sub- 
stance below.  Take,  for  example,  a  fine  ripe  apple  and  closely  ex- 
amine the  skin.  If  it  is  in  good  condition  and  attractive  it  is  almost 
certain  that  the  flesh  is  protected  in  the  natural  way  by  an  unbroken 
skin  which  resists  the  entrance  of  molds  and  other  micro-organisms. 
If,  however,  the  apple  has  begun  to  spoil,  it  is  almost  certain  that  the 
skin  has  been  broken. 

When  fruits  touch  each  other,  the  point  of  contact  is  likely  to 
be  moister  than  the  rest  of  the  fruit,  and  for  this  and  other  reasons 
it  is  a  favorite  place  for  the  starting  of  mold  or  other  growth.  If 
the  skin  is  perfectly  firm  and  we  rub  it  with  a  clean  cloth  to  dry  it 
and  to  remove  as  many  as  possible  of  the  mold  germs,  then  wrap  the 
apple  in  soft  paper  and  put  it  in  a  cold  place,  precautions  have  been 
taken  which  should  hinder  or  prevent  decay.  If,  however,  the  fruit 
is  kept  in  a  warm  and  damp  place,  and  touching  other  fruits,  its  decay 
is  certain.  In  dealing  with  all  varieties  of  microscopic  life  we  have 
learned  that  to  prevent  them  from  getting  a  start  is  the  all-important 
thing.     The  growth,  once  begun,  is  difficult  to  arrest. 

The  first  requisite  is  absolute  cleanliness  in  the  storage  place.  This 
is  not  to  be  attained  by  the  use  of  soap  and  water  alone.  Fresh  air, 
sunshine,  and  whitewash  are  important  aids.  Shelves  should  be 
washed  clean  and  then  dried;  but  the  undue  use  of  water  should  be 
avoided,  as  moisture  is  one  of  the  chief  requisites  of  growth.     A 

127°— Bull.  375—11 -2 


10  CAEE    OF   FOOD   IN    THE    HOME. 

cellar  may  be  kept  dry  by  placing  in  it  dishes  of  unslaked  lime,  which 
takes  up  the  moisture  with  avidity.  When  the  lime  crumbles  apart, 
losing  entirely  its  crystalline  character,  it  has  become  "slaked/7  will 
take  up  no  more  water,  and  must  be  renewed. 

The  growth  of  most  molds  is  retarded  by  light,  ventilation,  and 
low  temperature.  Light  and  ventilation  are  important.  The  right 
degree  of  cold  for  each  different  product  has  been  studied  experi- 
mentally, and  a  knowledge  of  low  temperature  in  relation  to  the 
growth  of  bacteria  and  fungi  forms  the  basis  of  the  cold-storage 
industry. 

BACTERIA  AND  HOW  TO  CONTROL  THEM. 

From  the  standpoint  of  household  sanitation  bacteria  are  by  far  the 
most  important  of  the  three  groups  of  micro-organisms  under  consider- 
ation. They  are  many  times  smaller  than  the  yeasts,  and  their  power 
of  reproduction  is  almost  unlimited.  They  require  at  least  25  per 
cent  of  moisture  in  which  to  live  and  multiply,  and  they  prefer  dark- 
ness to  light,  and  while  as  a  class  they  grow  best  at  a  comparatively 
high  temperature,  SO  to  95°  F.,  most  of  them  are  killed  by  an  exposure 
to  150-160°  F.  of  moist  heat.  A  repeated  application  of  boiling  tem- 
perature is  necessary,  however,  to  kill  the  spores  which  certain  kinds 
produce. 

Bacteria  are  very  widely  distributed;  the  soil  teems  with  them; 
they  are  in  the  air,  in  water,  and  in  all  food  exposed  to  dust  and 
air,  milk  being  a  favorite  habitat.  The  flesh  of  healthy  living 
animals  is  free  from  them,  but  when  slaughtered  and  marketed  the 
surface  is  almost  certain  t'o  acquire  bacteria,  like  all  things  which  are 
exposed  to  air  and  dust.  They  are  inside  the  human  body,  often 
performing  important  functions,  as  in  intestinal  digestion.  In  short, 
wherever  organic  material  is  exposed  to  their  inroads  there  they  are 
found. 

It  is  said  that  the  numbers  of  bacteria  are  in  direct  relation  to 
density  of  population.  We  can  not  get  away  from  them  without 
going  into  the  highest  mountains  or  to  the  polar  regions;  but  we  can 
protect  our  food  supply  from  their  undue  growth  by  reversing  all  the 
conditions  that  they  require  for  their  development. 

It  is  of  primary  importance  that  bacteria  be  prevented  from  getting 
their  start.  Hence,  only  such  foods  should  be  bought  as  are  in  the 
freshest  and  best  possible  condition.  Since  succulent  fruits,  milk,  raw 
meat,  and  meat  products  are  especially  subject  to  bacterial  action, 
they  must  be  given  unusual  attention.  They  should  be  consumed  as 
soon  as  possible  after  purchase  or  subjected  to  the  following  condi- 
tions: Utensils  that  come  in  contact  with  them  must  be  thoroughly 


CARE    OF    FOOD    IX    THE    HOME.  11 

scalded,  or  better,  boiled.  The  hands  and  clothing  of  the  worker  must 
be  kept  clean  and  every  effort  made  to  avoid  contact  with.  dirt.  Of 
cooked  foods,  moist  vegetables,  cooked  fruits,  moist  made  dishes  like 
t  pies  and  similar  dishes  are  particularly  liable  to  " spoil"  or 
;r,"  and.  the  importance  of  clean  utensils,  of  keeping  the  foods 
protected  from  dust,  etc.,  can  not  be  too  often  pointed  out. 

The  temperature  at  which  food  is  kept  should  be  reduced  to  that 
best  suited  to  it,  which  is  usually  as  near  the  freezing  point  as  pos- 
sible. Highly  putrescible  food,  as  meat,  is  thus  kept  for  months  in 
cold  storage,  and  a  good  ice  box  will  keep  such  food  for  days  in  per- 
fect condition.  Cool  clean  storage  is  as  important  for  many  cooked 
foods  as  for  raw. 

Since  the  water  content  of  food  must  be  above  25  per  cent  before 
bacterial  life  is  possible  in  it,  we  may  preserve  food  by  drying  it. 
This  method,  often  in  combination  with  salting  and  smoking,  is 
applied  to  fish,  meat,  vegetables,  and  fruit. 

By  exposing  food  to  150-160°  F.  of  heat  for  half  an  hour  all  varie- 
ties of  bacteria  would  be  killed  except  a  few  that  are  very  resistant  to 
heat.  In  the  case  of  spore-forming  bacteria  the  spores  would  in  cer- 
tain cases  resist  this  degree  of  heat.  The  pasteurization  of  milk  offers 
a  familiar  example  of  a  food  that  is  kept  from  spoiling  by  this  method. 

After  thorough  boiling  food  may  be  sealed  from  the  outer  air  by  the 
well-known  method  of  canning. 

Most  varieties  of  bacteria  are  killed  in  a  few  hours  by  direct  sun- 
shine, but  it  must  be  direct.  The  recesses  of  a  dark  room  are  little 
affected  by  what  sunshine  may  filter  into  its  depths.  Contents  of 
storerooms  should  now  and  then  be  sunned,  and  such  rooms  should  be 
regularly  aired. 

We  may  often  make  use  of  substances  that  inhibit  bacterial  growth. 
These  tiny  organisms  can  not  live  in  a  very  heavy  sugar  solution,  a 
fact  made  use  of  in  preserving  fruits.  Vinegar,  spices,  salt,  and  wood 
smoke  have  a  like  effect,  and  their  use  is  familiar  in  pickled  and  spiced 
vegetables  and  fruits  and  in  salted  and  smoked  meats. 

PTOMAINE  POISONING. 

In  some  foods  bacteria  in  the  early  stages  of  their  action  leave  no 
disagreeable  or  unhealthful  effects,  so  far  as  yet  proved.  Meat  is 
in  some  measure  ripened  by  bacterial  action,  and  the  "gamey" 
taste  given  meat  by  "hanging"  comes  in  part  from  the  same  cause, 
though  in  both  cases  the  changes  are  chiefly  due  to  the  action  of 
ferments  normally  present. 

It  is  not  easy  to  draw  the  line  between  the  harmless  ripening 
processes  and  the  bacterial  changes  classed  as  decay,  but  if  the 
bacteria  are  allowed  to  grow  without  hindrance  the  time  comes  when 

37S 


12  CAEE   OF   FOOD   IN   THE   HOME. 

the  food,  either  animal  or  vegetable,  attacked  by  bacteria  breaks 
up  into  a  loathsome  mass. 

The  food  may  become  dangerous  even  before  it  shows  outward 
signs  of  decomposition,  for  the  bacteria  may,  as  they  feed  upon  the 
proteids,  give  off  substances  known  as  ptomaines,  hardly  to  be  rec- 
ognized without  laboratory  apparatus,  but  some  of  which  are  very 
poisonous  to  man.  Certain  apparently  mysterious  cases  of  illness 
have  been  traced  to  such  causes,  and  milk,  fish,  meat,  cheese,  baked 
beans,  ice  cream,  and  other  foods  have  all  been  found  responsible 
for  "food  poisoning."  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  hear  that  a 
large  number  of  the  persons  attending  a  banquet  were  taken  vio- 
lently ill  within  a  few  hours  after,  all  with  very  similar  symptoms. 
In  some  cases  the  illness  has  been  of  brief  duration,  in  others  it  has 
continued  for  days,  or  even  resulted  in  death.  In  one  instance  the 
offending  food  may  have  been  lobster  salad,  in  another,  cold-storage 
chicken,  in  still  another,  ice  cream.  These  severe  cases  of  wholesale 
poisoning  generally  occur  in  the  summer  and  after  a  very  heated 
term.  Doubtless  many  milder  cases,  called  summer  complaint,  are 
due  to  the  same  cause.  This  sort  of  poisoning  is  not  a  true  bacterial 
disease;  that  is,  it  is  not  due,  as  is  typhoid  fever,  to  the  growth  of 
an  organism  in  the  body,  but  the  illness  results  from  the  introduc- 
tion into  the  system  of  poisonous  substances  already  formed  in  the 
food  by  the  bacteria. 

It  is  not  known  under  what  conditions  these  peculiar  poisons  are 
developed  in  foods;  we  know  only  that  they  are  the  result  of  bacterial 
action  not  so  advanced  as  to  give  warning  to  the  senses.  It  is  a 
safe  rule  to  eat  very  sparingly  of  foods  which  are  liable  to  such 
changes  in  hot  weather,  and  especially  where  the  methods  of  prepa- 
ration are  not  known  or  where  the  serving  of  a  large  number  of 
people  at  the  same  time  brings  an  undue  strain  on  the  culinary 
forces,  in  which  case  material  is  certain  to  be-served  which  has  been 
prepared  a  considerable  time  in  advance  and  not  properly  cooled 
and  stored. 

DISEASE  "GERMS"  AND  POLLUTED  WATER. 

The  so-called  "germs"  of  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria,  and  tuber- 
culosis are  bacteria,  and  as  they  may  be  conveyed  by  means  of  water 
or  food  this  danger  is  a  very  real  and  serious  one. 

As  a  proof  that  contaminated  water  is  the  direct  or  indirect  source 
of  typhoid-fever  infection  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  statistics 
of  10  large  European  cities  whose  water  supply  is  drawn  from  pure 
mountain  lakes  and  streams  showed  in  1905  a  death  rate  very  much 
lower  than  that  of  a  large  number  of  American  cities  whose  avejrage 
death  rate  from  typhoid  fever  was  34  per  100,000  inhabitants.0 

a  Jour.  New  England  Waterworkers'  Assoc,  19  (1905),  No.  4,  p.  575. 
375 


CAEE   OF   FOOD   IN   THE   HOME.  13 

The  germs  of  typhoid  fever,  like  those  of  cholera,  are  voided  in  the 
feces  and  urine  of  the  patient.  Because  of  carelessness  or  ignorance 
in  the  disposal  of  these  excreta  they  find  their  way  into  surface 
drainage,  reach  brooks  and  streams,  and  defile  wells.  Such  infected 
water  used  as  a  beverage  may  readily  cause  typhoid.  By  means 
of  milk  cans  washed  in  such  water,  or  by  the  hands  and  clothing  of 
persons  who  have  nursed  typhoid  patients,  the  germs  are  planted 
in  milk,  and  in  this  nutritive  medium  they  develop  with  wonderful 
rapidity,  so  that  milk  becomes,  next  to  water,  the  great  carrier  of 
typhoid.  It  is  also  known  to  have  carried  diphtheria  and  scarlet 
fever  and  it  has  well  been  called  the  most  valuable  and  the  most 
dangerous  food.  The  relation  of  flies  and  dust  to  typhoid  and  other 
diseases  is  discussed  later  (see  pp.  14  and  17). 

For  protection  from  a  polluted  water  and  milk  supply  we  must 
look  chiefly  to  sanitary  laws  and  their  rigid  enforcement.  In  such 
laws  the  housekeeper  who  is  seeking  to  guard  the  health  of  her  family 
has,  or  should  have,  the  most  lively  interest.  She  should  understand 
them  herself,  report  any  cases  of  disobedience  that  may  come  to  her 
notice,  and  be  willing  to  work  for  the  passage  of  better  laws  if  they 
are  needed. 

If  the  water  supply  is  not  known  to  be  well  guarded  from  pollu- 
tion the  existence  of  a  disease  like  typhoid  fever  in  any  locality 
requires  that  the  greatest  precautions  must  be  taken  in  every  house. 
The  drinking  water  must  be  boiled  to  destroy  any  disease-producing 
bacteria  possibly  contained  in  it,  and  this  boiled  water  must  be  used 
for  cleaning  the  teeth,  for  washing  such  vegetables  and  fruits  as  are 
consumed  raw,  and  also  in  rinsing  dishes  and  cooking  utensils. 

The  tubercle  bacillus,  the  cause  of  tuberculosis,  should  also  be 
guarded  against,  though  it  is  not  likely  to  be  carried  by  city  'water. 
Food  may  become  infected  with  it  from  contact  with  a  person  suf- 
fering from  the  disease,  and  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  forbid  any  such 
to  aid  in  preparing  meals.  It  is  also  a  reasonable  measure  to  pro- 
hibit the  sale  of  milk  from  a  farm  where  the  disease  is  known  to  exist. 

THE  NECESSITY  OP  CAUTION  IN  THE  USE  OF  RAW  FOODS. 

The  numerous  cautions  suggested  in  this  bulletin  may  seem  unnec- 
essary, but  a  few  facts  will  show  that  they  are  not  extreme. 

In  older  civilizations,  where  the  soil  has  been  exhausted  and  needs 
constant  manuring,  cooked  fruit  and  vegetables  rather  than  raw 
are  much  more  the  rule  than  with  us.  In  densely  peopled  China, 
where  night  soil  is  used  to  fertilize  the  land,  the  eating  of  raw  vege- 
tables is  said  to  be  very  rare.  It  is  easy  to  see  why  such  foods  un- 
cooked might  be  very  dangerous.  Although  such  methods  are  not 
followed  to  any  great  extent  in  the  United  States,  raw  fruits  and  vege- 
tables may  be  a  menace  to  health.  Methods  of  washing  fruits  and 
vegetables  are  discussed  in  another  section. 

375 


14  CAKE    OF    FOOD   IN    THE    HOME. 

A  Russian  authority,  Professor  MJetchnikoff,0  because  of  the  pos- 
sible pr<  icro-organisms  and  minute  animal  pests, 
nestinal  worms,  strongly  advises  against  the  eating  of  any  raw 
food  whatever,  even  if  it  has  been  washed  in  boiled  water.  Although 
view  may  be  considered  extreme  for  American  conditions,  it 
shows  what  care  must  be  taken  in  the  purchase  and  the  cleaning  of 
food  that  is  to  be  consumed  raw. 

Kitchen  methods  in  many  of  their  details  fail  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  sanitary  science.  The  cook  is  not  trained  in  bacteriology; 
she  does  not  know  what  cleanliness  nicans  from  the  laboratory  point 
of  view.  The  old-fashioned  hatred  of  dirt  for  its  own  loathsome 
sake  is  the  best  substitute  for  this  knowledge,  but  it  is  not  enough. 
For  instance,  boiling  has  long  been  known  to  kill  whatever  was  the 
cause  of  '"spoiling"  of  food.  However,  most  housekeepers  did  not 
"]>'>il  out"  the  milk  pans,  etc.,  but  simply  scalded  them.  " Scald- 
ing" is  an  indefinite  term;  if  boiling  hot  water  is  used,  and  enough 
of  it,  scalding  would  doubtless  be  effective,  but  too  often  when  the 
facts  in  the  case  are  not  thoroughly  understood  such  a  process  is 
carelessly  carried  out  and  the  desired  end  is  not  accomplished. 
When  in  such  cases  the  milk  spoils  very  quickly  it  is  often  attributed 
to  the  weather  or  to  bad  luck.  The  housekeeper  who  understands 
the  causes  of  spoiling,  and  who  knows  that  the  microscopic  plants 
responsible  for  it  may  be  destroyed  by  a  sufficient  degree  of  heat 
applied  for  the  proper  time,  is  much  more  likely  to  be  successful 
than  one  who  works  by  rule  of  thumb.  Here,  as  in  so  many  other 
household  problems,  knowledge  is  essential.  How  is  the  igno- 
rant cook  to  know  that  what  lurks  unseen  in  crack  or  seam  may 
bring  to  naught  all  her  precautions?  The  homely  old  dictum  that 
the  only  way  to  conquer  dirt  is  by  "eternally  keeping  at  it"  is  as 
true  as  ever  it  was,  but  as  we  have  come  to  realize  more  and  more 
the  insidiousness  and  omnipresence  of  the  enemy  to  health,  and  that 
hi  the  form  of  bacteria  it  consorts  with  dirt,  we  realize  also  that  every 
housekeeper  and  houseworker  mus.t  be  made  to  understand  some- 
thing about  the  microscopic  forms  of  life  which  are  harmful,  and 
how  to  apply  all  the  weapons  which  modern  science  has  discovered 
for  their  destruction. 

FLIES  AND  FOOD. 

The  intelligent  housekeeper  of  this  generation  has  at  her  command 
a  wealth  of  scientific  knowledge  that  maybe  applied  to  the  solution 
of  problems  in  home  sanitation.  Of  great  value  are  the  means  which 
have  been  devised,  thanks  to  the  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology 

o  The  New  Hygiene.     New  York,  1907. 
373 


CASE   OF   FOOD   IX    THE   HOME.  15 

of  this  Department,  the  agricultural  experiment  stations,  the  state 
boards  of  health,  and  investigators  in  many  universities  and  other 
institutions,  to  prevent  the  spread  of  disease  bjT  insects  and  other 
forms  of  animal  hie.  In  the  nature  of  things  the  importance  of  this 
matter  was  not  recognized  until  it  had  been  shown  with  certainty 
that  such  animal  life  played  an  important  part  in  the  transmission 
of  disease.  Two  varieties  of  mosquitoes  are  generally  conceded  to  be 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  transmission,  respectively,  of  malaria 
and  of  yellow  fever,  since  the  organism  that  causes  these  diseases 
must  first  undergo  a  complicated  series  of  changes  in  the  body  of  the 
insect  before  it  is  capable  of  producing  a  new  case.  Thus,  the  mos- 
quito bites  a  yellow-fever  patient  and  takes  the  micro-organism  into 
its  body,  and  there  for  some  twelve  days  it  is  developed  to  the  stage 
of  maturity,  after  which  time  and  not  before  the  mosquito  can 
convey  the  disease  by  biting.  In  such  cases  the  insect  is  called  an 
"intermediary  host."  Both  diseases  are  now  successfully  fought 
by  exterminating  the  breeding  places  of  the  mosquito  and  by  the 
screening  of  dwellings. 

Insects  play  a  still  larger  part  as  mechanical  carriers  of  disease 
germs,  the  greatest  menace  of  all  in  our  daily  life  being  the  common 
house  fly,  known  to  scientists  as  the  Musca  domestica.  It  is  not  a 
biter,  like  the  horsefly  and  some  other  flies,  or  hke  the  mosquito,  but 
it  has  its  own  way  of  carrying  infection.  It  breeds  in  manure  and 
it  feeds  on  it;  it  feeds  on  the  sputum  of  diseased  throats  and  lungs, 
on  typhoid  dejecta,  and  refuse  of  all  kinds,  and  by  means  of  it3 
hairy  feet  and  legs  it  carries  about  and  distributes  particles  of  these 
vile  feasts,  which  frequently  contain  living  germs  capable  of  pro- 
ducing a  new  case  of  disease.  In  still  another  way  does  the  fly 
spread  disease — disease'germs  taken  into  its  body  in  food  are  known 
to  remain  alive  in  the  intestines  and  also  for  clays  after  they  are 
ejected  in  the  "speeks,"  i.  e.,  in  the  fly  excrement.  By  recent  experi- 
ments with  animals  this  has  been  proved  true  of  both  the  tuberculosis 
and  the  typhoid  bacillus,  the  germs  in  the  "speck"  having  actually 
given  the  disease  from  nine  to  fifteen  days  after  it  was  voided  by  the 
fly.  Also  the  eggs  of  worms  that  it  draws  into  its  body  with  water 
that  it  drinks  are  known  to  remain  alive  and  to  hatch  after  being 
ejected. 

The  case  against  flies  is  well  proved,  and  yet  they  are  allowed  to 
infect  the  joint  of  meat  exposed  for  sale  by  the  butcher,  the  bread 
and  sweetmeats  of  the  confectioner's  counter,  berries  and  other  fruit, 
the  edge  of  the  milk  pail,  the  kitchen  table  and  utensils,  and  the 
food  of  our  table.  They  were  shown  to  be  the  principal  carrier  of 
the  typhoid  fever  which  attacked  20  per  cent  of  the  United  States 
soldiers  in  the  Cuban  war  and  furnished  86  per  cent  of  the  deaths. 

375 


16  CARE   OF   FOOD   IN   THE   HOME. 

As  the  report0  states,  "  Flies  undoubtedly  served  as  carriers  of  infec- 
tion. *  *  *  It  is  probable  that  the  infection  was  [also]  dissemi- 
nated to  some  extent  through  the  air  in  the  form  of  dust."  Further- 
more, it  is  pointed  out  that  the  men  undoubtedly  spread  the  disease 
by  means  of  infected  material  conveyed  on  their  persons  and  clothing. 
Water  was  not  regarded  as  an  important  factor  in  the  spread  of 
typhoid  fever  in  the  national  encampment  of  1898.  Since  that  time 
so  many  well-proved  cases  have  been  traced  to  the  fly  that  Dr.  L.  O. 
Howard5  recommends  that  the  name  "typhoid  fly"  should  be 
generally  adopted,  in  order  to  call  attention  to  the  danger  of  allow- 
ing this  insect  access  to  our  dwellings. 

In  the  monthly  report  of  one  of  our  state  boards  of  health0  is 
graphically  described  a  scene  familiar  to  many  of  us: 

In  front  of  a  grocery  boxes  of  blackberries  were  exposed  for  sale.  They  were  slightly 
gray;  dust  and  swarms  of  flies  were  present.  On  the  sidewalk,  within  6  feet  of  the 
berries,  some  poor  diseased  mortal  had  spat,  and  this  sputum  was  circled  with  flies. 
A  moment's  observation  showed  that  they  flew  back  and  forth,  not  only  between 
the  berries  and  the  sputum,  but  also  between  the  berries  and  the  gutter  filth  and  street 
manure.  But,  most  wonderful,  people  purchased  those  nasty  berries  and  ate  them 
raw. 

It  was  found  later  that  much  diarrhea  existed  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, caused  possibly  by  bacteria  transmitted  by  these  very  flies. 

We  are  far  too  tolerant  of  the  presence  of  this  filthy  and  dangerous 
insect.  Its  breeding  grounds  should  be  the  first  point  of  attack. 
The  Bureau  of  Entomology  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  has 
given  a  great  deal  of  attention  to  the  matter,  and  the  publications 
of  the  Bureau  should  be  consulted  for  full  data  on  the  subject.  A 
summary  may  be  found  in  an  earlier  bulletin  of  this  series .d  On  the 
authority  of  this  Bureau  it  is  stated  that  at  least  95  per  cent  of  the 
town  and  city  flies  are  bred  in  heaps  of  horse  manure  left  in  roads, 
fields,  and  stables.  The  remedy  proposed  is  stricter  enforcement 
of  the  laws  governing  the  cleaning  of  streets,  and  the  covering  of  all 
manure  pits  in  town  and  country,  with  occasional  spraying  with 
crude  petroleum.  The  manure  pile  and  the  barnyard  are  the  fly- 
breeding  ground  of  the  farm. 

To  urge  the  housewife  to  work  for  public  measures  to  insure  such 
sanitary  reforms  is  not  asking  her  to  go  too  far  afield.  In  her  own 
house  she  will  endeavor  by  the  use  of  screens  and  fly  paper  and  similar 
means  to  protect  herself  from  this  dangerous  insect.     But  she  will 

a  Abstract  of  Report  on  the  Origin  and  Spread  of  Typhoid  Fever  in  United  States 
Military  Camps  during  the  Spanish  War  of  1898.     Washington,  1900. 
&U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Ent.  Bui.  78. 
cMo.  Bui.  Ind.  Bd.  Health,  ]0  (1908),  p.  64. 
dU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  155. 
375 


CAKE   OF   FOOD   IN   THE   HOME.  17 

wage  an  unequal  battle  unless  the  root  of  the  evil  is  attacked;  and 
this  can  only  be  done  by  removing  manure  and  other  refuse  that 
form  the  breeding  places  of  the  fly.  This  question  is  considered  in 
the  government  documents  referred  to  (p.  16). 

Briefly,  the  manure  should  be  collected  in  pits  where  it  may  be 
kept  covered,  or  where  it  may  be  treated  with  kerosene  oil  or  some 
other  material  which  kills  the  eggs  and  larva?.  It  is  of  still  greater 
importance  that  flies  should  never  have  access  to  human  excreta. 

DUST  III  ITS  KELATION  TO  FOOD. 

What  is  the  composition  of  dust  ?  It  has  been  described  as  a  little 
of  ever}*thing.  In  the  paved  streets  of  cities  and  towns  earthy  par- 
ticles from  the  soil  are  always  present.  While  street  dust  in  the  coun- 
try is  largely  made  up  of  the  powdered  earth  of  the  road  mixed  with 
finely  ground  manure,  in  cities  its  lighter  particles  are  principally 
dried  horse  manure  with  more  or  less  of  dried  powdered  sputum; 
facts  sufficiently  disgusting  to  give  us  a  hearty  aversion  to  dust  as  an 
accidental  accompaniment  to  any  article  of  food.  The  dust  of  rooms 
contains  earthy  particles,  minute  fragments  of  clothing  fiber,  bits  of 
abraded  skin,  and  pieces  worn  away  from  walls,  floor,  and  furniture, 
also  mold  spores,  bacteria,  and  street  dust  in  greater  or  less  quantity, 
according  to  the  location. 

Every  precaution  should  be  taken  if  there  is  illness  in  a  house,  par- 
ticularly tuberculosis  or  other  infectious  or  contagious  disease,  to 
prevent  the  micro-organisms  which  cause  the  disease  from  getting 
into  the  air  and  dust.  Dr.  Michael  Pruddena  gives  the  results  of 
attempts  to  count  the  bacteria  in  the  dust  of  New  York  streets.  A 
culture  plate  of  3J  inches  in  diameter  was  exposed  for  five  minutes 
with  the  following  results:  Central  Park,  near  street,  collected  499 
bacteria;  Union  Square,  collected  214  bacteria;  large  dry  goods  store, 
collected  199  bacteria;  street  while  being  swept,  collected  5,810 
bacteria. 

The  daily  examination  of  the  milk  of  a  certain  model  dairy  revealed 
suddenly  a  great  increase  in  the  bacterial  count.  The  physician  and 
the  bacteriologist  examined  the  premises  and  watched  every  process 
in  a  vain  effort  to  determine  the  cause  until  it  was  noticed  that  the 
milk  pails  were  put  to  sun  where  the  dust  blew  on  them.  This 
cause  removed,  the  bacterial  count  returned  to  normal. 

These  air  and  dust  bacteria  are  not  necessarily  harmful,  but  where 
large  numbers  are  present  there  are  likely  to  be  among  them  those 
which  produce  disease.     A  number  of  cases  of  illness  are  on  record 

o  Dust  and  Its  Dangers,  p.  26. 
127°—  Bull.  375—11 3 


18  CAEE   OF   FOOD   IN"   THE   HOME. 

direct!}7"  traceable  to  fruit,  but  it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  in 
such  cases  infection  has  come  through  dust  settling  on  the  food  or 
through  direct  contact  of  the  fruit  with  infected  human  beings. 

Better  market  inspection  is  needed,  better  protection  for  food  from 
dust  both  in  transit  and  when  on  sale,  and  a  more  rigid  carrying  out 
of  existing  laws,  but,  above  all,  a  demand  for  clean  food  on  the  part 
of  the  buyer. 

Precautions  should  also  be  taken  against  dust  after  the  food  is 
delivered  at  the  house.  In  modern  dairying  much  stress  is  laid  on 
the  fact  that  sweeping  the  stable  before  milkiDg  fills  the  air  with 
bacteria  which  are  likely  to  infect  the  newly  drawn  milk.  The  same 
danger  arises  if  food  and  dishes  are  left  exposed  in  kitchen  or  pantry 
during  sweeping.  Tests  have  been  made  to  determine  how  great 
this  danger  really  is  in  ordinary  household  practice,  and  it  has  been 
found  not  only  that  molds,  yeasts,  and  bacteria  are  much  more 
abundant  in  the  air  during  sweeping,  but  that  those  stirred  up  by 
the  sweeping  do  not  settle  back  again  for  several  hours  afterward. 
Evidently,  then,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  cover  food  and  dishes  during 
the  actual  sweeping;  they  should  remain  protected  for  some  hours. 
Dusting  with  a  dry  cloth  or  feather  duster  also  stirs  the  micro- 
organisms into  the  air;  for  this  reason  a  damp  cloth  to  which  they 
will  stick  is  greatly  preferable  for  cleaning  in  kitchen,  pantry,  and 
china  closet;  in  fact,  everywhere.  These  considerations  also  show  the 
great  sanitary  advantage  of  modern  cleaning  devices,  of  which  a  num- 
ber of  sorts  are  now  on  the  market,  by  which  the  dirt  is  sucked 
through  tubes  into  suitable  receptacles.  Bits  of  damp  newspaper  or 
damp  sawdust  sprinkled  on  a  floor  will  hinder  dust  from  rising  when 
the  room  is  swept,  but  the  wooden  or  linoleum-covered  floor  of  a 
well-kept  kitchen  and  pantry  should  furnish  very  little  dust.  Larger 
particles  should  be  lightly  brushed  up  and  the  floor  washed  every 
few  days. 

PET  ANIMALS  IN  THE  KITCHEN. 

I  Another  possible  source  of  danger,  but  one  frequently  overlooked, 
would  seem  to  be  the  pet  animals  of  the  household.  The  fur  of  even 
the  most  cleanly  cats  and  dogs  must  come  in  contact  with  many 
things  which  we  would  not  care  to  have  touch  our  food.  In  many 
families  where  the  animals  are  not  allowed  in  the  living  rooms  for 
fear  of  soiling  furniture  they  are  given  free  range  in  kitchen  and 
pantry,  where  the  chances  are  they  will  leave  more  or  less  loose  hair 
and  dirt  which  may  find  its  way  to  food  utensils  or  to  food. 

A  word  should  also  be  said  regarding  animal  pests.  Rats  and 
mice  are  regarded  by  all  housekeepers  as  destructive  and  disagreeable 
in  every  way,  and  no  one  cares  to  eat  food  which  they  have  touched. 
Traces  of  the  presence  of  mice  may  sometimes  be  noted  in  cereals 

375 


CAKE   OF   FOOD   IN   THE    HOME.  19 

and  other  foods  sold  from  open  boxes  and  similar  containers  in 
markets  and  shops  which  are  careless  in  such  matters.  This  suggests 
another  reason  for  keeping  such  foods  in  glass  jars  or  tin  cans  or 
similar  receptacles  in  shops  and  in  the  pantry  and  storeroom.  In 
addition  to  the  food  which  they  destroy  and  the  pecuniary  loss  in- 
volved, rats  and  mice  are  a  menace  to  health,  as  they  are  known  to 
be  carriers  of  disease.  Many  investigations  have  been  reported 
which  show  their  connection  with  the  spread  of  trichinosis  and  with 
bubonic  plague.  Data  summarized  by  the  New  York  State  Depart- 
ment of  Health a  indicate  that  the  rat  may  be  a  large  factor  in  trans- 
mitting diphtheria  and  other  communicable  diseases. 

The  question  of  the  losses  due  to  rats  and  methods  for  destroying 
these  pests  are  considered  in  an  earlier  bulletin  of  this  series.6 

THE  FOOD  SUPPLY. 

That  food  which  is  brought  into  the  home  shall  be  clean  and  of  good 
quality  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance.  Vegetables  and  fruits 
should  be  grown  and  milk  and  other  dairy  products  produced  under 
proper  conditions  (see  pp.  13  and  17),  and  all  the  products  of  the  farm 
ami  garden  which  pass  through  the  dealer's  or  manufacturer's  hands 
should  reach  the  kitchen  in  a  clean  and  wholesome  condition. 

Since  the  passage  of  the  National  Pure  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  giving 
to  the  United  States  Government  authority  to  enforce  stringent  laws 
against  the  adulteration  and  misbranding  of  foods  which  enter  into 
interstate  commerce,  and  the  more  rigid  enforcement  of  similar  state 
laws  which  regulate  these  matters  in  many  of  the  States,  a  great  bur- 
den has  been  lifted  from  the  shoulders  of  the  buyer.  This  legislation 
has  enormously  decreased  the  deceptions  formerly  practiced  by  some 
manufacturers,  and  since  it  insures  that  the  name  and  description  on 
bottle  and  package  shall  not  misrepresent  the  contents,  the  buyer,  if 
he  knows  what  he  wants,  will  have  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  it,  while 
the  honest  manufacturers  and  dealers  (and  they  have  without  doubt 
always  outnumbered  the  others)  will  also  be  protected.  This  matter 
in  its  various  aspects  is  taken  up  in  publications  of  the  Bureau  of 
Chemistry c  of  this  Department. 

The  national  laws  regarding  the  inspection  of  meat  and  meat  prod- 
ucts are  a  further  and  very  important  protection  of  the  home  food 
supply.  Publications  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  d  of  this 
Department  deal  with  the  question  of  meat  inspection  in  relation  to 
wholesomeness  and  quality.     But  the  buyer  has  still  to  choose  among 

«  Mo.  Bui.  N.  Y.  State  Dept.  Health,  n.  s.,  4  (1909),  No.  3,  p.  74. 
&  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  369. 

"  V.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Chem.  Bui.  100;  Yearbook  1907,  p.  321. 
d  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Animal  Indus.  Circ.  125. 
375 


20  CARE   OF   FOOD   IN    THE   HOME. 

man}-  varieties  of  food  that  have  all  met  the  requirements  of  the  law. 
There  are,  for  instance,  many  kinds  of  canned  vegetables  that  should 
be  carefully  compared  as  to  flavor  and  water  content.  A  10-cent  can 
of  tomatoes  that  consists  of  a  little  partly  ripened  pulp  swimming  in 
water  may  be  much  dearer  than  a  15-cent  can  with  a  lower  water  con- 
tent. The  writer  compared  two  cans  of  tomatoes  on  the  basis  of  the 
amount  of  pulp  of  a  given  consistency  that  they  yielded  on  strain- 
ing. As  the  15-cent  can  yielded  twice  as  much  as  the  10-cent  can, 
and  the  pulp  was  also  of  a  better  flavor,  the  cheaper  can  should  really 
have  sold  for  7  or  8  cents  in  order  to  vie  with  the  other  in  real  food 
value. 

CLEAN  SHOPS  AND  MARKETS  A  NECESSITY. 

The  buyer  as  well  as  the  merchant  is  responsible  for  the  dirty  market 
and  shop,  for  if  they  were  not  tolerated  by  the  purchaser  they  could 
not  exist.  The  condition  of  the  food  when  it  enters  the  home  is  a  mat- 
ter of  the  utmost  importance  in  relation  to  the  subsequent  handling 
and  use,  and  great  care  is  to  be  exercised  in  choosing  clean  rather  than 
dirty  places  in  which  to  purchase  food.  As  yet  the  buyer  has  but 
little  protection  through  the  enforcement  of  law  regarding  unhygienic 
conditions  existing  in  places  where  food  is  offered  for  sale.  Let  us 
hope,  however,  that  this  state  of  things  will  soon  mend.  In  some 
States  the  boards  of  health  are  already  active  in  the  inspection  of 
dairies,  and  the  inspection  of  slaughterhouses  has  made  great  prog- 
ress under  the  United  States  laws. 

Even  to  the  untrained  eye  the  markets  and  provision  stores  are  often 
dirt}'  places.  In  too  many  of  them  all  manner  of  foods  are  exposed  to 
dust  and  flies,  and  in  the  long  list  may  be  found  many  that  are  "ready 
to  eat,"  such  as  cooked  meats,  butter,  cheese,  bread,  cake,  figs,  dates, 
pickles,  and  candy.  In  boxes  on  the  floor,  leaning  at  an  angle  against 
the  counter,  or  on  the  pavement  outside,  may  often  be  seen  green 
vegetables,  macaroni,  and  fresh  fruits  exposed  to  street  dust  which  is 
in  good  part  finely  ground  horse  manure  and  other  filth.  A  crate  of 
berries  may  be  seen  on  a  stand  outside  unprotected  from  dust  or  from 
the  visits  of  countless  flies. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  market  men  and  grocers  who  have  clean, 
well-kept,  and  sanitary  places  of  business,  but  the  care  of  the  market 
stall  or  provision  store  is  too  often  in  tLe  hands  of  people  who  are  not 
only  ignorant  of  the  hygienic  reasons  for  avoiding  dirt  but  also  devoid 
of  any  real  instinct  for  cleanliness,  in  so  far,  at  least,  as  it  applies  to 
commercial  matters.  In  such  shops  the  meat  block  is  seldom  scraped 
and  scrubbed,  oysters  are  opened  into  dirty  pails,  and  floors  and 
shelves  are  infrequently  cleaned.  The  grocer's  assistant  may  come  in 
directly  from  unharnessing  the  horse  to  take  your  crackers  from  the 

375 


CARE   OF   FOOD   IN   THE   HOME.  21 

barrel,  and  his  hands  are  not  washed  between  drawing  a  fowl  and  cut- 
ting a  beefsteak.  The  butcher  or  grocers  apron  in  a  case  recently 
noted  served  some  of  the  uses  of  a  handkerchief  and  yet  it  was  in  almost 
constant  contact  with  food.  Such  topics  are  not  pleasant,  but  condi- 
tions will  not  be  mended  until  housekeepers  take  notice  of  such  things, 
protest  against  them,  and  confine  their  buying  to  the  shops  which  are 
run  by  men  who  can  be  trusted  to  abolish  all  such  uncleanly  ways. 

If  the  average  person  finds  these  conditions  and  practices  offen- 
sive, because  they  are  unclean  and  unnecessary,  how  much  more  dis- 
turbed are  those  who  have  learned  that  in  addition  such  practices 
involve  bacterial  contamination  of  foods,  some  of  which  are  eaten  raw. 

The  praise  and  blame  of  the  buyer  has  much  to  do  with  keeping  up 
.  the  standards  of  the  dealer,  and  it  is  held  by  some  writers  that  the 
growing  use  of  the  telephone  in  ordering  the  dinner,  thus  bringing 
about  absentee  buying,  is  responsible  for  many  bad  conditions. 

If  buyers  will  think  of  these  things  and  patronize  the  clean,  pro- 
gressive, and  sanitary  shops  in  preference  to  the  others  it  will  do  much 
to  insure  better  standards.  It  is  the  opinion  of  many,  however,  that 
the  law  is,  or  should  be,  the  final  resource.  In  some  cities  associations 
of  housekeepers  have  joined  in  demanding  better  hygienic  conditions 
in  markets  and  have  obtained  what  they  sought. 

SANITATION  OF  BAKEF.XES. 

Y\'hen  we  buy  a  loaf  of  bread  in  a  shop  whose  counters  are  clean 
and  whose  show  case  carries  a  tempting  array  of  cakes  and  rolls,  we 
are  not  to  conclude,  as  a  matter  of  course,  that  the  bakery  at  the 
rear  or  below  stairs  would  also  meet  our  approval.  Not  one  cus- 
tomer in  a  thousand  sees  the  conditions  under  which  bread  and  pastry 
are  manufactured,  and  it  is  this  very  removal  from  public  view  and 
criticism  that  constitutes  the  chief  difficulty  in  enforcing  existing 
laws  for  the  proper  construction  of  bakeries  and  for  sanitary  methods 
of  carrying  on  the  business. 

Not  long  ago  one-half  the  bread  consumed  in  London  came  from 
cellar  bakeries,  and  while  it  is  true  that  a  cellar  bakery  may  be 
hygienic,  the  chances  are  strongly  against  it. 

There  are,  of  course,  very  many  sanitary  and  clean  bakeries  and 
workmen  who  are  careful  in  their  work  and  neat  in  habits,  but  the 
reverse  condition  too  often  prevails.  One  London  bakery  is  described 
in  a  recent  report  as  30  feet  long  by  7  or  8  in  width,  with  bags  of 
flour  ranged  on  one  side  and  the  dough  tubs  placed  along  the  other. 
In  the  same  room  were  found  open  sanitary  arrangements,  poor  sew- 
erage leaking  out  foul  gases,  a  defective  oven  letting  out  fumes  of 
coal  gas,  open  cracks  in  the  ceiling  through  which  sifted  dust  from 
the  store  above,  and  the  stifling  air  was  unchanged  by  ventilation. 

375 


22  CAKE    OF   FOOD   IX   THE    HOME. 

Iii  one  of  our  Northern  States  a  few  years  ago  health  inspectors 
examined  547  bakeries  in  25  towns  and  3  cities  and  reported  that 
from  a  sanitary  standpoint  270  were  distinctly  bad,  222  not  especially 
bad,  44  satisfactory,  and  11  worthy  of  especial  commendation.® 
Similar  conditions  have  been  found  in  other  localities.6 

Most  difficult  to  change  are  the  personal  habits  of  the  workmen 
where  they  are  careless  and  lacking  in  cleanliness. 

In  some  bakeries  floors  and  even  vats  were  scrubbed  but  once  a 
year;  in  some  there  was  no  provision  made  for  washing  the  hands. 

From  such  bakeries  most  persons  do  not  care  to  buy  their  bread, 
if  they  are  willing  that  men  should  be  allowed  to  labor  in  such  sur- 
roundings. It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  buyer  of  food  has 
many  opportunities  to  help  in  raising  standards  that  will  affect  the 
whole  community.  It  is  quite  within  the  rights  of  the  buyer  to 
insist  on  inspecting  the  place  where  the  food  is  prepared,  but  it  is 
better  to  accompany  the  official  inspector.  Some  of  the  bakeries  will 
be  found  above  reproach,  and  these  are  the  ones  which  the  careful 
housewife  should  patronize. 

The  inspection  of  bakeries  is  provided  for  by  legislative  enact- 
ments in  some  cities  and  States  and  is  an  important  hygienic  meas- 
ure. Great  improvements  have  been  made  in  recent  years  in  the 
construction  of  bakeries  and  in  bread-making  machinery  and  other 
equipment,  all  of  which  makes  for  more  sanitary  conditions.  It  is 
encouraging  to  note  that  progressive  bakers  realize  the  importance 
of  cleanliness  and  sanitation  and  manifest  a  marked  interest  in  all 
that  pertains  to  such  matters.  As  an  instance  of  this  may  be  men- 
tioned the  work  of  the  bakers'  institute  in  one  of  the  Western 
States.0    • 

It  has  been  proposed  that  a  law  should  require  that  the  loaf  of 
bread,  as  soon  as  baked,  should  be  put  in  a  paper  bag  and  thus  han- 
dled and  transported,  but  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  carry  out  reforms 
of  this  kind  if  they  conflict  with  the  prejudices  of  the  buyer.  A 
baker  in  one  of  the  large  cities  whose  methods  were  known  to  the 
writer  started  this  method  but  did  not  succeed  in  popularizing  it. 
People  wanted  to  "see  the  bread,"  and  it  entailed  an  expense  which 
the  buyer  was  not  willing  to  meet  and  which  the  baker  thought  that 
his  profits  would  not  warrant.  Other  cities  or  other  bakeries  have 
without  doubt  had  a  different  experience.  At  any  rate,  bread  or 
rolls  thus  wrapped  in  paper,  often  of  a  transparent  nature,  are  served 
in  some  restaurants  and  hotels  and  on  some  dining  cars. 

o  Mass.  State  Bd.  Health  Rpt.,  38  (1906),  p.  GOT. 
b  Bien.  Rpt.  Bur.  Labor  and  Indus.  Statis.  Wis.,  13  (1908),  pi    5. 
cBien.  Rpt.  Bur.  Labor  and  Indus.  Statis.  [Wis.],  13  (1906-7),  pt.  5,  p.  719: 
375 


CAEE   OF   FOOD    IN   THE    HOME.  23 

THE  QUALITY  OF  MEATS. 

In  order  to  become  a  good,  judge  of  meats  it  is  very  helpful  to  have 
a  few  lessons  from  an  experienced  buyer.  The  different  cuts  will 
thus  be  easily  learned,  but  the  quality  of  the  meat  depends  on  so 
many  factors,  as  the  age  of  the  animal,  the  breed,  and  the  method  of 
fattening,  that  it  is  easy  to  make  mistakes  in  choosing,  and  the  buyer 
will  often  be  wise  in  accepting  information  from  the  dealer,  if  he  is 
one  who  prides  himself  on  keeping  first-class  meats.  Having  found 
such  a  one,  the  customer  who  wishes  to  save  time  and  money  will 
continue  to  buy  of  him.  The  very  large  amount  of  meat  which  some 
housekeepers  provide  is  not  necessary.  In  general  it  is  better  to  use 
a  reasonable  amount  of  that  which  is  in  prime  condition  rather  than 
to  economize  on  the  quality.  The  meat  is  easily  supplemented  by 
other  dishes,  and  the  whole  meal  will  thus  be  better  balanced  than 
would  be  the  case  if  a  larger  amount  of  inferior  meat  were  provided. 
Although  not  generally  understood,  it  is  just  as  important  that  the 
cheaper  cuts  of  meat,  as  well  as  the  dearer  ones,  should  come  from  a 
well-fattened  animal. 

THE  TRITE  PRICE  OF  MEATS. 

There  is  an  apparent  and  a  true  price  of  meats,  a  fact  that  is  not 
always  considered.  It  may  be  more  economical  to  pay  15  cents  for 
a  cut  of  clear  meat  than  8  cents  for  one  that  contains  nearly  half  its 
weight  of  bone,  sinew,  and  fat.  The  apparent  price  of  chicken  may 
be  20  cents  a  pound,  but  its  real  price  will  often  be  50  cents,  when 
the  weight  of  head,  legs,  entrails,  crop,  and  bones  is  taken  into  account. 

POULTRY. 

There  is  much  discussion  regarding  the  merits  of  drawn  and 
undrawn  poultry.  Most  dealers  contend  that  in  warm  weather  a 
fowl  which  has  had  entrails  and  crop  removed  spoils  much  more 
quickly,  because  of  the  extent  of  cut  surface  exposed,  than  does 
undrawn  poultry.  The  writer  found  in  a  large  city  market  but  one 
dealer  who  kept  drawn  poultry,  and  he  said  that  he  could  not  do  so 
except  for  the  fact  that  steady  customers  took  all  of  his  stock,  so  that 
nothing  was  left  on  his  hands.  The  extra  price  that  he  charged  per 
pound  was  only  sufficient  to  make  up  for  the  loss  in  weight. 

The  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health a  has  recently  studied 
this  question  and  found  that  if  the  entrails  were  so  drawn  that  none 
of  their  contents  were  spilled  inside  the  body,  the  bird  kept  better 
than  in  the  undrawn  state.  The  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry 
on  this  subject  is  referred  to  later.     (See  p.  26.) 

a  Mass.  State  Bd.  Health  Rpt.,  39  (1907),  pp.  265,  287. 
375 


24  CARE   OF   FOOD   IX   THE   HOME. 

p 

It  is  greatly  to  the  housekeeper's  advantage  to  buy  fresh,  well- 
drawn  poultry,  for  not  only  is  the  flavor  injured  by  the  unclean  prac- 
tice of  allowing  the  entrails  to  remain  in  the  body,  but  it  is  thought  to 
favor  the  development  of  ptomaines.  It  has  been  shown  that  after 
death  the  intestinal  juices  with  their  contained  bacteria  are  able  to 
pass  through  the  walls  of  the  intestines  into  the  muscle  fiber,  and  this 
process  goes  on  even  though  the  fowl  is  kept  at  a  very  low  tempera- 
ture.    In  some  States  cold-storage  fowls  are  required  by  law  to  be 

sold  as  such. 

FISH. 

Regarding  fish,  one  quality  is  so  all-important  that  the  buyer  is 
warranted  in  giving  the  order:  "Any  kind  that  is  fresh."  The  dealer 
knows  what  he  is  selling.  The  buyer  may  not  be  able  to  discover 
from  lack  of  experience  in  the  effect  of  ice  and  cold  storage.  It  is 
safe  to  rely  on  a  good  dealer  if  the  buyer  is  a  good  judge  of  fish  when 
it  comes  on  the  table  and  then  holds  the  dealer  strictly  to  account. 
Fish  that  has  been  kept  for -a  week  or  more  on  ice  has  lost  its  distinc- 
tive flavor,  although  it  may  hot  be  spoiled.  It  has  what  the  cook 
calls  a  "woolly"  taste.  Shellfish  form  a  delicious  addition  to  the 
diet,  but  if  they  have  been  grown  or  fattened  in  sewage-infected 
water  they  may  carry  disease  germs.  As  it  is  in  general  impossible 
to  learn  their  origin,  the  rule  of  never  eating  them  in  the  raw  state  is 
adopted  by  man}r.  The  practice  of  fattening  or  "floating"  o}rsters  in 
fresh  or  in  brackish  water  robs  them  of  much  of  their  fine  flavor,  and 
since  the  most  accessible  supply  of  such  water  is  at  the  outlet  of 
streams,  and  as  such  streams  are  frequently  polluted  by  sewage,  many 
persons  believe  that  tliis  practice  should  be  forbidden  by  law. 

In  manv  European  cities  fish  are  sold  alive,  the  customer  selecting 
his  fish  as  it  swims  in  a  tank.  It  would  seem  that  this  excellent 
method  might  be  used  in  our  own  cities,  especially  those  situated  on 
the  seaboard,  at  least  for  customers  who  are  fastidious  and  who  are 
willing  to  pay  an  extra  price  for  special  articles  when  it  is  warranted- 

VEGETABLES. 

Only  those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  eating  green  vegetables 
fresh  from  the  garden  realize  in  what  poor  condition  are  many  of  the 
vegetables  sold  to  the  city  buyer.  Some  varieties,  as  green  peas,  are 
so  delicate  in  flavor  that  even  a  few  hours'  removal  from  the  vines 
brings  about  a  change.  Indeed,  the  market  gardener  has  been 
obliged  to  develop  the  keeping  qualities  of  vegetables  and  fruit  at  the 
expense  of  flavor. 

If  lightly  packed  and  transported  only  a  short  distance,  the  dete- 
rioration in  most  vegetables  is  not  noticeable,  but  if  closely  packed 

375 


CARE   OF   FOOD   IN   THE   HOME.  25 

for  any  length  of  time  changes  clue  to  the  action  of  enzyms  or  "fer- 
ments" normally  present  in  the  living  tissue  take  place,  with  a  con- 
sequent loss  of  flavor. 

In  green  corn,  for  example,  the  ferments  present  begin  immediately 
to  destroy  the  contained  sugar,  and  thus  the  corn  is  robbed  of  flavor 
very  shortly  after  picking.  These  changes  are  often  accompanied  by 
changes  in  appearance  by  which  they  may  be  detected,  especially  in 
green  corn  and  in  peas  and  beans.  Pods  inclosing  peas  should  be  crisp 
and  plump.  String  beans  should  not  have  a  faded  look  or  any  suspi- 
cion of  toughness  or  limpness  when  broken.  Green  corn  should  show 
fresh  husks  or  "shucks"  of  good  color,  not  wilted  or  partly  dry,  nor 
lacking  the  "bright "  look  of  the  fresh  ear.  Cabbages  should  be  crisp 
and  bright  of  color.  Cucumbers,  turnips,  and  carrots  should  be  firm 
to  the  touch.  Lettuce,  if  of  the  headed  variety,  should  have  firm, 
bleached  hearts,  showing  no  trace  of  the  rusty  red  look  that  announces 
long  keeping.     It  will  keep  its  freshness  longer  if  the  root  is  left  on. 

Some  market  men  and  grocers  grow  part  or  all  of  their  own  vege- 
tables, and  make  a  practice  of  having  only  fresh  ones  of  good  quality 
in  stock,  though  the  combination  of  market  gardener  and  grocer  is, 
in  the  nature  of  tilings,  not  common.  A  much  larger  number  of 
market  men  and  grocers  are  very  particular  to  procure  for  sale  only 
fresh  vegetables,  and  here  again  the  discriminating  buyer  will  patronize 
the  dealer  who  is  to  be  trusted. 

When  housekeepers  buy  vegetables  of  peddlers,  they  should  patron- 
ize, if  possible,  the  grower  rather  than  the  huckster.  The  grower  must 
seli  out  and  go  home,  and  it  is  to  the  huckster  that  he  sells  Iris  surplus, 
and  this  surplus  is  often  so  manipulated  as  to  sell  for  fresh  goods  until 
the  next  market  day.  The  huckster  in  his  off  hours  may  often  be 
seen  trimming  off  the  wilted  outside  leaves  of  celery,  cabbage,  and 
lettuce  and  giving  a  fresh  surface  to  the  stem,  and  sometimes  rinsing 
or  sprinkling  the  lettuce  with  water  not  infrequently  far  from  clean. 
The  beets  which  were  left  over,  after  losing  little  by  little  their  tops, 
are  sold  by  measure  to  whoever  will  buy. 

It  may  be  said  in  general  that  when  a  given  vegetable  is  cheapest 
then  it  is  best,  for  all  conditions  are  then  favorable  to  its  development. 
Potatoes  should  be  bought  in  a  fully  ripened  state,  not  too  young, 
nor  is  it  necessary  to  eat  them  when  they  have  become  too  old,  as  it 
is  easy  to  find  substitutes  such  as  boiled  rice,  hominy,  and  similar 
foods. 

Vegetables  of  medium  size,  neither  very  large  nor  very  small,  will 
be  generally  found  to  be  the  best,  and  most  housekeepers  consider 
them  the  most  economical,  as  they  may  be  cooked  and  served  with 
least  waste. 

375 


26  CAKE   OF   FOOD   IX    THE    HOME. 

THE  STORAGE  OF  FOOD. 

In  earlier  times  a  larger  proportion  of  the  food  supply  was  stored 
at  home  than  is  now  the  case.  Even  in  cities  and  towns  supplies 
were  commonly  purchased  in  bulk.  Owing  to  the  improvement  in 
transportation  facilities  and  to  other  changed  conditions  storage  of 
food  outside  the  home  has  developed  into  an  enormous  industry.  As 
was  the  case  with  markets  and  food  manufactories,  the  storage  plant 
is  a  matter  in  which  the  housewife  is  interested,  as  it  has  to  do  with 
the  character  of  the  food  which  comes  into  the  home. 

COMMERCIAL  COLD  STORAGE. 

Cold  storage  as  applied  to  whole  carcasses  of  beef  and  mutton  has 
been  of  great  service  to  the  buyer.  By  its  aid  prices  are  equalized 
and  we  are  furnished  even  in  summer  with  meat  that  has  been  made 
tender  by  keeping. 

The  service  rendered  by  cold  storage  of  fish  and  poultry  is  not  so 
thoroughly  well  established.  The  subject  is'  being  carefully  inves- 
tigated by  experts.  Apparently,  if  the  process  is  carried  out  in  the 
best  manner  and  the  goods  not  kept  too  long  in  storage,  the  cold- 
storage  fish  and  poultry  are  wholesome.  From  the  results  of  an 
investigation  of  the  quality,  flavor,  and  wholesomeness  of  cold-storage 
turkeys,  drawn  and  undrawn,  the  changes  brought  about  by  storage, 
and  similar  matters  carried  on  for  the  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Department  of 
Health,0  the  conclusion  was  drawn  that  under  proper  regulation  cold 
storage  can  be  safely  employed  for  poultry,  but  that  regulation  is 
essential.  The  question  of  the  effects  of  cold  storage  on  the  character 
of  meat  and  other  food  products,  the  comparative  merits  of  drawn  and 
undrawn  poultry,  and  similar  matters  are  being  investigated  by  the 
Bureau  of  Chemistry  of  this  Department  and  are  discussed  in  its 
publications.'' 

With  all  cold-storage  foods  it  is  important  that  there  shall  not  be 
a  long  interval  between  removal  from  storage  and  cooking,  and  this 
is  particularly  the  case  with  poultry  and  hsh.  Foods  that  have  been 
frozen  and  then  thawed  seem  to  furnish  particularly  good  ground 
for  bacterial  growth,  or  what  we  call  "spoiling." 

Storage  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  which  is  coming  more  and  more 
into  use,  gives  us  many  out-of -season  articles.  The  same  is  true  to 
a  great  extent  of  turkeys  and  other  domestic  poultry,  for  food  of 
this  kind  is  largely  of  seasonal  production,  and  cold  storage  seems 
to  be  the  only  method  by  which  the  fresh  material  can  be  kept  for  a 
long  period  for  market  purposes.     In  the  case  of  many  sorts  of  cold- 

a  Buffalo  [Dept.  Health)  Sauit.  Bui.,  n.  ser.,  2  (1909),  No.  3,  p.  1. 
6  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  1907,  p.  197;  Bur.  Chem.  Bui.  115. 
375 


CARE   OF   FOOD   IX    THE   HOME.  27 

storage  fruits  and  vegetables  it  is  the  common  opinion  that  their 
quality  is  hardly  as  good  as  that  of  fresh  ones.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  handled  under  the  best  conditions  much  of  the  cold-storage  goods, 
such  as  apples  and  other  fruits,  is  of  excellent  quality.  Indeed,  it 
is  difficult  to  imagine  how  housekeeping  could  be  carried  on,  particu- 
larly in  large  cities  and  towns  under  modern  conditions  of  home 
construction  (with  limited  storeroom,  etc.)  without  the  cold-storage 
industry.  For  this  reason  it  is  all  the  more  important  that  the 
housewife  should  be  informed  as  to  the  best  ways  to  handle  such 
commodities,  and  should  use  her  influence  to  insure  the  best  condi- 
tions in  the  cold-storage  industry. 

THE  STOREROOM  IN  THE  HOME. 

The  storeroom  for  food  may  be  the  tiny  closet  of  the  flat  dweller 
in  a  city  or  the  cellar  of  the  Tillage  or  farm  house.  In  the  last  case 
it  often  has  a  commercial  as  well  as  a  household  value,  since  it  keeps 
fruits  and  vegetables  in  good  condition  until  marketed,  as  well  as 
until  they  are  needed  for  the  home  table;  but  in  any  case,  it  should 
be  cool,  dry,  clean,  and  regularly  aired. 

It  may  be  well  to  describe  a  cellar  that  is  badly  built  and  carelessly 
kept,  in  order  to  see  what  should  be  exactly  opposite  conditions. 

Such  a  cellar  may  be  dug  in  wet  ground,  without  sufficient  drainage 
of  the  subsoil;  it  may  even  be  in  contact  with  open  sewers  or  drains, 
which  have  been  proved  in  certain  cases  to  contain  specific  organ- 
isms capable  of  producing  disease.  In  many  cases  the  cellar  built 
against  an  earth  wall  is  not  protected  from  dampness  by  a  layer  of 
moisture-proof  cement,  and  the  water  may  stand  in  drops  on  its 
surface.  Again,  it  may  be  dug  to  such  an  extent  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground  that  the  windows  are  wholly  inadequate  for  lighting 
and  ventilation. 

It  may  have  an  earthen  floor,  or  one  of  badly  matched  boards 
impossible  to  keep  clean.  It  will  probably  have  a  musty  smell, 
proof  positive  that  mold  plants  are  there  and  ready  to  attack  any 
fruit  and  vegetables  stored  on  its  shelves  or  in  its  dirty  bins. 

If,  in  addition  to  this  faulty  construction,  the  cellar  is  badly  kept, 
bits  of  rotting  fruit  and  vegetables  being  left  about,  not  only  will 
these  conditions  favor  the  spoiling  of  food,  but  they  may  prove 
injurious  to  the  health  of  the  family  living  above  stairs. 

A  cellar  that  meets  modern  requirements  must  be  dug  in  ground 
that  is  well  drained  either  naturally  or  by  artificial  means.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  a  cellar  is  not,  first  of  all,  a  storeroom;  it  is  an 
essential  part  of  a  well-planned  house,  especially  necessary  in  our 
Northern  States,  in  helping  to  keep  an  equable  temperature;  and  if 
its  walls  and  floor  are  what  they  should  be  it  prevents  dampness 
and  ground  air  from  rising  into  the  house. 

370 


28 


CARE    OF   FOOD   IX    THE    HOME. 


If  the  house  is  set  close  to  tlie  ground  the  cellar  windows  must  be 
wide  enough  to  compensate  for  their  lack  in  height,  and  must  be  set 
opposite  each  other  in  order  to  insure  good  draft.  A  method  that 
is  sometimes  used  is  to  dig  out  a  space  in  front  of  a  window,  making  a 
little  area  which,  laid  in  either  brick  or  stone,  may  be  whitewashed 
and  reflect  light  into  the  cellar,  as  is  shown  in  figure  1 ;  it  also  allows 
of  sinking  the  cellar  window  deeper  and  obtaining  better  ventilation. 

This  matter  and  related  topics  are  considered  in  a  recent  volume0 
on  farm  home  construction  and  similar  questions. 

The  walls  and  floor  of  this  cellar  should  be  laid  in  Portland  cement 
to  keep  out  moisture,  and  the  walls  and  ceiling  should  be  white- 
washed twice  a  year.  Even  if  a  cellar  is  kept  very  clean,  the  earthy 
smell  of  vegetables  that  arises  from  it  when  it  is  well  stocked  is  not 
agreeable — another  reason  for  good  ventilation  and  frequent  airing. 
A  separate  room  may  be  partitioned  off  from  the  cellar  in  one  corner 

for  storage  pur- 


poses.  This 
can  then  be  kept 
darker  than  one 
would  wish  to 
keep  the  rest  of 
the  cellar.  Such 
a  room  must,  of 
course,  be  aired 
now  and  then. 
In  this  storage 
room  should  be 
placed  a  mova- 
ble safe  with  wire-netting  sides,  and  a  syringing  shelf;  and  broad  shelves 
should  be  built  high  enough  so  that  barrels  may  be  shoved  under  them. 
The  writer  once  saw  in  Holland  a  cellar  that  met  every  possible 
requirement  of  hygiene.  The  floor  and  side  walls  were  of  closely 
matched  tiles  laid  in  cement,  making  it  as  tight  as  a  dish  and  as 
easily  cleaned.  It  was  not  large,  but  its  wall  space  was  so  utilized 
that  it  furnished  ample  storage  facilities  for  a  large  restaurant. 

HOT-WEATHER  STORAGE. 

The  storage  of  food  in  cold  weather  is  a  comparatively  simple 
matter,  since  the  low  temperature,  which  is  a  prime  requisite  for 
checking  the  growth  of  bacteria  and  molds,  is  furnished  by  nature 
and  we  have  only  to  guard  against  freezing.  The  keeping  of  perish- 
able foods  in  warm  weather  is  best  accomplished  by  artificially 
cooled  air. 


Tig.  1.— Cellar  window  constructed  to  secure  vent  i  lit  ion. 


oThe  Healthful  Farmhouse.     Boston,  1906. 


375 


CARE   OF   FOOD   IIST   THE   HOME.  29 

ICE  MACHINE. 

On  a  large  dairy  farm  or  wherever  the  household  is  large  enough 
to  warrant  it  an  ice  machine  may  be  used  which  is  driven  by  an 
electric  motor  of  suitable  horsepower,  or  by  a  gas  or  some  other 
suitable  engine,  which  operates  a  brine  tank  and  furnishes  very  cold 
dry  air  to  the  ice  chest.  Such  clean,  dry  air  at  a  constant  low  tem- 
perature furnished  from  outside  is  so  superior  a  method  of  cooling 
food  that  -the  ordinary  ice  chest  seems  a  poor  thing  in  comparison, 
though  in  the  majority  of  homes  it  is  the  only  resort. 

ICE  CHESTS. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  ice  chest  or  refrigerator,  all  built  on 
one  of  two  general  plans.  In  one  kind  both  ice  and  food  are  kept 
in  one  large  compartment.  In  the  other  the  ice  is  placed  in  a  top 
compartment,  below  which  are  cupboards  for  the  food;  the  principle 
here  utilized  is  that  cold  air  seeks  a  lower  level  and  that  the  air 
cooled  by  the  melting  ice  will  sink  to  the  shelves  below.  It  probably 
better  utilizes  a  given  amount  of  ice,  for  the  further  reason  that  the 
ice  compartment  may  remain  tightly  closed  except  when  being 
filled.  In  both  cases  the  air  space  between  the  outside  wall  and  the 
zinc  lining  is  filled  with  some  nonconducting  material,  as  cork  or 
asbestos. 

It  is  of  great  convenience  to  have  the  ice  chest  built  against  the 
outer  wall  of  kitchen  or  pantry,  so  that  it  may  be  filled  from  the 
outside  by  means  of  a  small  door  cut  for  that  purpose.  In  such  a 
case  it  is  of  course  advisable  to  choose  a  wall  on  which,  there  is  little 
or  no  sunshine.  The  ice  box  may  also  be  drained  by  a  pipe  leading 
to  the  outside  and  then  properly  cared  for,  thus  saving  much  labor  in 
the  emptying  of  pans.  It  is  not  considered  safe  to  connect  it  with 
the  house  sewer  because  of  the  danger  of  sewer  gases  "backing" 
into  it,  even  if  a  good  trap  is  provided. 

CAKE  OF  ICE  CHESTS. 

If  on  a*  warm  summer  day  you  put  your  hand  into  an  ice  box  well 
filled  with  ice  you  may  think  that  the  temperature  is  very  low,  and 
yet  it  is  in  all  probability  nearer  50°  than  40°  F.  As  low  a  tempera- 
ture as  40°  or  45°  is  only  to  be  obtained  in  a  very  well-constructed 
box  with  a  large  receptacle  for  ice,  and  then  only  for  a  short  time 
after  it  is  filled.  A  box  that  maintains  but  60°  is,  however,  very 
useful  in  keeping  food  from  day  to  day. 

The  ice  box,  no  matter  how  well  cooled,  is  and  must  be  damp, 
and  dampness  is  one  of  the  requirements  for  bacterial  growth.  It 
must  be  remembered,  also,  that  some  varieties  of  bacteria  grow  at 
low  temperatures.     Therefore  the  interior  of  an  ice  chest  should  be 

375 


30  CAEE   OF   FOOD   IN   THE   HOME. 

wiped  every  day  with  a  dry  cloth  and  once  a  week  everything  should 
be  removed,  so  that  sides,  shelves,  and  drain  may  be  thoroughly 
scalded.  The  water  must  be  actually  boiling  when  it  is  poured  in, 
and  the  process  repeated  several  times. 

In  the  small  ice  chests,  where  all  the  ice  space  must  be  utilized, 
the  cube  of  ice  will  be  a  tight  fit,  and  it  is  difficult  to  lower  it  to  the 
grating.  If  the  ice  is  put  on  a  piece  of  stout  cloth  whose  ends  are 
long  enough  to  reach  above  the  top,  it  may  be  lifted  by  these  ends 
and  easily  deposited  in  place.  The  cloth  folded  about  it  serves  also 
to  protect  the  ice  from  the  heat  of  the  outside  air,  and  holds  any 
bits  of  dirt  that  may  have  been  frozen  into  the  ice,  thus  preventing 
them  from  settling  to  the  floor  of  the  box  or  lodging  in  the  drain 
pipe.  The  cloth  should  be  scalded  after  each  using.  A  folded 
newspaper  laid  on  the  floor  of  the  one-compartment  ice  box  serves 
the  same  purpose  as  to  cleanliness.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
refrigerator  ice  is  often  dirty,  and  that  it  may  bring  in  putrefactive 
or  even  typhoid  bacilli,  for  most  bacteria  are  resistant  to  low  tem- 
perature and  are  not  destroyed  by  freezing.  On  this  account  no 
food  should  be  brought  into  direct  contact  with  it,  nor  should  it  be 
put  into  drinking  water,  unless  its  purity  is  above  suspicion. 

All  cooked  food  should  be  cooled  as  soon  as  possible  before  being 
placed  in  the  ice  box.  Butter  may  be  kept  from  taking  up  the 
flavors  of  other  food  by  keeping  it  in  a  tightly  covered  receptacle. 
Milk  requires  more  access  of  air,  but  in  a  clean  ice  box  in  which  no 
strong-smelling  food  is  kept  milk  should  remain  uninjured  in  flavor 
for  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours.  If  vegetables  or  other  foods  of 
pronounced  odor  are  kept  in  glass  jars  with  covers  or  in  covered 
earthenware  receptacles  there  wall  be  fewer  odors  to  be  communicated. 
Portions  of  canned  food  should  never  be  put  into  the  ice  box  in  the 
tin  can.  Such  food  does  not  of  necessity  develop  a  poisonous  prod- 
uct, as  has  sometimes  been  claimed,  but  experiments  show  that 
ptomaines  are  particularly  liable  to  develop  in  such  cases.  Casting 
out  this  somewhat  remote  possibility,  the  "tinny"  taste  acquired 
by  such  keeping  is  enough  to  condemn  the  practice. 

Foods  that  are  to  be  eaten  raw,  such  as  lettuce  and  celery,  should 
be  carefully  cleaned  before  being  placed  in  the  ice  box,  and  may  with 
advantage  be  wrapped  in  a  clean,  damp  cloth.  If  they  are  to  be 
kept  for  some  days  they  should,  however,  be  put  in  without  remov- 
ing the  roots,  the  further  precaution  being  taken  to  wrap  them  care- 
fully in  clean  paper  or  to  put  them  into  grocers'  bags. 

WATER  FOR  COOLING  FOOD. 

There  are  many  ways  of  lowering  temperature  by  utilizing  the  fact 
that  water  when  evaporating  draws  off  heat  from  surrounding  ob- 
jects.    If  a  pitcher  of  water  be  wrapped  with  a  cloth  which  is  kept 


CARE   OF   FOOD   IN   THE   HOME.  31 

saturated  and  exposed  to  a  draft  of  air  the  temperature  of  the  water 
in  the  pitcher  will  be  lowered  by  several  degrees. 

A  receptacle  in  which  food  is  placed  may  be  cooled  in  the  same 
way.  Take  a  wooden  box  with  a  sound  bottom  made  of  one  piece 
and  invert  it.  Tack  a  layer  of  cotton  batting  over  it  and  cover  with 
some  coarse  cloth.  It  is  now  to  be  kept  wet  by  some  contrivance 
that  will  furnish  an  automatic  drip.  The  writer  used  for  this  pur- 
pose an  old  aluminum  pan  which  had  in  it  a  half  dozen  very  tiny 
holes,  and  when  filled  with  water  it  supplied  just  enough  water  to 
keep  the  cloth  saturated.  Under  this  box  lettuce  in  cold  water,  a 
cold  pudding,  a  pat  of  butter,  and  other  food  were  placed  and  kept 
in  good  condition.  A  pan  of  milk  lowered  into  another  of  cold 
water  is  kept  from  souring  many  hours  longer  than  if  it  was  unpro- 
tected from  the  surrounding  air.  Spring  water  of  low  temperature 
is  used  by  many  farmer's  wives  to  keep  milk  and  butter  cool,  and  a 
"spring  house"  is  a  common  thing  on  many  farms,  though  less 
depended  upon  than. was  the  case  before  ice  houses,  refrigerators,  and 
ice  chests  became  so  common. 

It  is  also  an  old-fashioned  practice  to  lower  foods  in  covered  pails 
into  the  well  and  suspend  them  not  far  above  the  surface  of  the  water. 

WINTER  STORAGE  OF  FOOD. 

In  the  Southern  States  storage  problems  are  not  the  same  as  in 
regions  where  the  whiter  is  severe,  and  many  roots  and  other  vege- 
tables may  be  left  in  the  ground  with  little  or  no  protection,  while 
crops  may  even  be  grown  throughout  the  year,  thus  doing  away 
largely  with  the  need  of  winter  storage.  In  the  greater  part  of  the 
United  States,  however,  the  problem  of  keeping  at  least  a  part  of  the 
food  supply  through  the  cold  season  is  an  important  one,  and  the 
more  important  the  longer  the  winter  season. 

The  farmer  will  without  question  keep  in  cellar  or  storeroom  or 
outside  cave  or  pit  the  surplus  of  what  is  raised  on  the  farm.  Whether 
it  is  wise  for  others  to  buy  food  in  large  quantities  and  store  it  for 
winter  use  depends  on  whether  it  can  be  bought  at  a  sufficiently  low 
price  to  pay  for  the  care  and  risk  that  the  keeping  entails,  as  well  as 
on  market  facilities,  the  amount  of  storage  space  available,  and  simi- 
lar factors.  But  the  storing  of  smaller  quantities  of  food  is  both 
convenient  and  economical  and  is  an  absolute  necessity  for  families 
who  live  at  a  distance  from  market. 

A  WINDOW  STORAGE  BOX. 

The  dweller  in  a  small  apartment  who  has  no  cool  cellar  in  which 
to  store  perishable  articles  may  find  an  outside  window  box  useful 
in  winter. 

375 


32 


CAKE   OF   FCOD   IN   THE   HOME. 


A  carpenter  may  be  hired  to  construct  a  box  that  will  exactly  fit 
outside  a  kitchen  window,  if  possible  on  the  north  side.  Such  a 
device  has  been  described  in  a  number  of  books  and  bulletins.0  It 
should  come  halfway  up  the  lower  sash  and  contain  two  deep  shelves, 
and  when  the  sash  is  raised  the  contents  of  these  shelves  are  easily 
accessible.  In  freezing  weather  the  sash  may  be  left  up,  and  thus 
the  box  becomes  a  part  of  the  warmed  room.  A  sash  curtain  will 
conceal  it  from  the  room.     Such  a  window  box  is  often  fully  as 


Fig.  2.— Window  box  for  storage  of  food. 

great  a  convenience  in  the  farm  or  village  home  as  in  the  city  flat. 
Figure  2  shows  a  way  in  which  it  may  be  constructed. 

A  more  inexpensive  way  is  to  hang  a  neat  wooden  box,  well  cleaned, 
on  strong  nails  or  spikes  outside  the  window.  A  heavier  box  may  be 
supported  on  brackets.  The  box  should  have  a  tight-fitting  hinged 
lid  and  be  lined  with  asbestos  paper  to  equalize  extremes  of  tem- 
perature, while  a  lining  of  oilcloth  will  admit  of  easy  cleaning.  A 
shoe  box  would  be  good  for  this  purpose.  It  might  be  painted  the 
color  of  the  house. 

o  Cornell  Reading  Course  for  Fanner.-'  Wives,  1.  eer.,  No.  1,  p.  6 — Farm  House 
and  Garden;  No.  3,  p.  52 — Housekeeping;  also  Reading  Lesson  Sup.  1. 
u75 


CARE   OF  FOOD   IN   THE   HOME.  33 

THE  KEEPING  OF  VEGETABLES,  FRUITS,  AND  MEATS. 

The  following  hints  regarding  the  keeping  of  different  kinds  of  food 
may  be  found  useful : 

Potatoes  are  kept  without  difficulty  in  a  cool,  dry,  and  dark  place. 
Sprouts  should  not  be  allowed  to  grow  in  the  spring. 

Such  roots  as  carrots,  parsnips,  and  turnips  remain  plump  and  fresh 
if  placed  in  earth  or  sand  filled  boxes  on  the  cellar  floor. 

Sweet  potatoes  may  be  kept  until  January  if  cleaned,  dried,  and 
packed  in  chaff  so  that  they  will  not  touch  each  other. 

Pumpkins  and  squash  must  be  thoroughly  ripe  and  mature  to  keep 
well.  They  should  be  dried  from  time  to  time  with  a  cloth  and  kept, 
not  on  the  cellar  floor,  but  on  a  shelf,  and  well  separated  from  each 
other. 

Cabbages  are  to  be  placed  in  barrels,  with  the  roots  uppermost. 

Celery  should  be  neither  trimmed  nor  washed,  but  packed,  heads  up, 
in  long,  deep  boxes,  which  should  then  be  filled  with  dry  earth. 

Tomatoes  may  be  kept  until  January,  if  gathered  just  before  frost, 
wiped  dry,  and  placed  on  straw-covered  racks  in  the  cellar.  They 
should  be  firm  and  well-grown  specimens,  not  yet  beginning  to  turn. 
As  they  ripen  they  may  be  taken  out  for  table  use,  and  any  soft  or 
decaying  ones  must  be  removed. 

Apples,  if  for  use  during  the  autumn,  may  be  stored  in  barrels  with- 
out further  precaution  than  to  look  them  over  now  and  then  to  remove 
decaying  ones;  but  if  they  are  to  be  kept  till  late  winter  or  spring 
they  must  be  of  a  variety  known  to  keep  well  and  they  must  be  hand- 
picked  and  without  blemish  or  bruise.  They  should  be  wiped  dry 
and  placed  with  little  crowding  on  shelves  in  the  cellar.  As  a  further 
precaution  they  may  be  wrapped  separatehr  in  soft  paper. 

Pears  may  be  kept  for  a  limited  time  in  the  same  way,  or  packed  in 
sawdust  or  chaff,  which  absorbs  the  moisture  which  might  otherwise 
favor  molding. 

Oranges  and  lemons  are  kept  in  the  same  way.  Wrapping  in  soft 
paper  is  here  essential,  as  the  uncovered  skins  if  bruised  offer  good 
feeding  ground  for  mold.  Oranges  may  be  kept  for  a  long  time  in  good 
condition  if  stored  where  it  is  very  cold  but  where  freezing  is  not  pos- 
sible. Lemons  and  limes  are  often  kept  in  brine,  an  old-fashioned 
household  method. 

Cranberries,  after  careful  looking  over  to  remove  soft  ones,  are 
placed  in  a  crock  or  firkin  and  covered  with  water.  A  plate  or  round 
board  placed  on  top  and  weighted  serves  to  keep  the  berries  under 
water.     The  water  should  be  changed  once  a  month. 

In  winter  large  pieces  of  fresh  meat  may  be  purchased  and  hung  in 
the  cellar.     Thin  pieces,  as  mutton  chops,  are  sometimes  dipped  in 


34  CASE    OF    FOOD    IX    TliE    HOME* 

muf  i  on  suet,  which  keeps  the  sarfaoe  from  drying  and  is  easily  scraped 
oil'  before  cooking. 

Turkeys,  chickens,  and  other  birds  should  be  carefully  drawn  as 
soon  as  killed  and  without  washing  hung  in  the  coolest  available  p! 

Loked  ham,  tongue,  beef,  and  fish  are  best  put  in  linen  bags  and 
hung  in  the  cellar. 

bit  pork  and  corned  beef  should  be  kept  in  brine  in  suitable  jars, 
kegs,  or  casks,  and  should  be  weighted  so  as  to  remain  well  covered. 
A  plate  or  board  weighted  with  a  clean  stone  is  an  old-fashioned  and 
factory  device. 

Eggs  may  be  packed  for  winter  use  in  limewatcr  or  in  water-glass 
solution,  methods  which  are  described  in  an  earlier  bulletin"  of  this 
series.  Many  housekeepers  have  good  success  in  packing  them  in 
bran,  in  oats,  or  in  dry  salt,  but  according  to  experiments  summarized 
in  the  aforementioned  bulletin,  the  preference  is  to  be  given  to  the  10 
per  cent  solution  of  water  glass.  Exclusion  of  the  air  with  its  accom- 
panying micro-organisms  and  the  prevention  of  drying  out  are  what  is 
sought  in  all  cases.  Packed  eggs  are  not  equal  to  fresh  eggs  in  flavor, 
bnt  when  they  are  well  packed  are  of  fairly  good  quality  and  perfectly 
wholesome. 

STORAGE  OF  GROCERIES,  MEATS,  COOKED  FOOD,  AUD  CAJOTED 

GOODS. 

Flour  comes  packed  both  in  barrels  and  in  bags,  and  the  form  in 
which  it  shall  be  purchased  and  kept  is  of  importance  to  the  housewife. 
Bags  have  certain  advantages  over  the  barrel  for  both  producer  and 
consumer;  they  pack  into  freight  cars  with  no  waste  of  space,  and  the 
cloth  for  S  bags  costs  less  than  one  barrel;  for  the  consumer,  also,  it  is 
often  convenient  to  buy  in  small  quantities.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  bag  is  too  often  very  flimsy  in  texture,  so  that  it  allows  flour  to  sift 
out,  and  is  also  easily  soiled  by  contact  with  a  damp  or  dirty  floor. 
The  purchaser  may  well  require  that  the  bags  be  made  of  good  ma- 
terial, so  that  the  contents  may  be  protected  from  dust  and  dirt. 

On  this  question  Prof.  Harry  Snyder,  of  the  University  of  Minne- 
sota, says: 

There  is  no  question  whatever  but  what  flour  improves  by  storage  up  to  six  months 
and  it  will  thou  hold  its  own  for  some  time,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  wheat 
and  the  thoroughness  with  which  impurities  arc  removed. 

As  a  general  proposition  it  seems  certain  that  it  is  economi  cal  for  the  consumer  to  huy 
flour  in  bulk  ratlicr  than  in  small  sacks  at  a  time.  In  the  fall  of  the  year  a  small  sack 
of  flour  for  trial  purposes  can  bo  purchased  of  the  grocer  and  at  the  aame  time  he  can 
Bet  aside  a  barrel  of  the  same  flour  of  the  same  shipment  for  future  delivery,  provided 
the  first  sample  proves  satisfactory.  As  a  general  rule  the  price  of  flour  advances  from 
fall  bo  fj'ring  sufficient  to  more  than  cover  the  interest  item  involved  and  at  the  same 
time  the  co  Is  assured  of  a  good  quality  of  flour.  * 

a  I  .  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  128. 
375 


CAKE    OF   FOOD   IN"    THE   HOME.  35 

Aside  from  accidental  contamination  the  chief  destructive  agencies 
in  stored  flour  and  similar  materials  are  fungi  and  bacteria.  The 
fungi  or  molds  break  down  chiefly  the  starches  of  the  flour,  forming 
organic  acids  which  make  the  flour  sour.  The  bacterial  growths 
which  are  present  are  chiefly  forms  which  liquefy  or  break  down  the 
gluten,  the  acid  presumably  aiding  in  this.  This  matter  has  been 
studied  by  H.  G.  Beli,a  among  others,  in  connection  with  the  problem 
of  commercial  storage,  and  he  recommends  storage  in  well-lighted, 
warm,  and  dry  rooms  as  a  preventive  of  the  development  of  fungi  and 
bacteria,  a  method  as  applicable  to  farm  and  town  homes  as  to  com- 
mercial conditions. 

The  various  prepared  or  "self-raising"  flours  are  more  expensive 
than  the  mixture  that  the  housewife  can  easily  make  by  adding  the 
requisite  amount  of  baking  powder  to  flour  and  sifting  it  several 
times.  It  is  a  convenience  and  a  saving  of  time  to  keep  this  mixture 
on  hand,  as  one  sifting  provides  enough  for  a  month's  use  in  cakes 
and  muffins. 

The  fact  that  many  breakfast  cereals  that  were  once  sold  only  in 
bulk  can  be  bought  in  packages  is  a  great  advantage  from  a  sanitary 
point  of  view.  The  contents  of  these  packages,  if  bought  fresh  and  if 
well  cared  for,  will  remain  in  good  condition  for  months.  If  made 
in  clean  factories,  such  goods  have  had  little  chance  for  contamina- 
tion from  dust  and  dirt. 

If  breakfast  cereals  are  bought  in  bulk  they  should  be  kept  in  tight 
receptacles  in  a  cool,  dry  place.  Crackers  may  be  kept  like  break- 
fast cereals,  either  in  the  packages,  in  which  many  sorts  are  marketed, 
or  in  tin  boxes  or  in  jars. 

Corn  meal  spoils  more  readily  than  flour,  and  for  most  families 
it  is  best  to  buy  in  small  quantities. 

Rice,  tapioca,  macaroni,  and  similar  dry  materials  may  be  kept 
without  any  trouble  in  covered  cans  or  small  crocks  in  a  dry,  clean 
place.  The  same  method  is  advisable  for  raisins,  Zante  currants, 
evaporated  and  dried  fruits,  and  similar  supplies. 

Sugar  and  salt  are  best  kept,  the  former  in  tin,  the  latter  in  wooden 
or  crockery  receptacles. 

Glass  preserve  Jars  are  perhaps  the  best  and  most  convenient  of 
all  containers  for  small  quantities  of  almost  any  food  material. 

BREAD  AND  OTHER.  COOKED  FOODS. 

While  cooling,  newly  baked  bread  should  be  lightly  covered  with  a 
clean  cloth  or  paper  to  prevent  mold  germs  and  dust  from  falling 
upon  it,  but  should  not  be  tightly  wrapped  in  a  thick  cloth  as  is  the 
practice  in  some  households,  for  unless  it  is  aired  when  taken  from 

a  Oper.  Miller,  13  (1908),  p.  591;  Amer.  Miller,  37  (1909),  p.  280. 
375 


36  CAEE   OF   FOOD  IN   THE   HOME. 

the  oven,  it  is  likely  to  become  " soggy"  and  damp  and  thus  offers 
an  excellent  medium  for  cultivation  of  molds.  When  perfectly  cold 
the  bread  should  be  placed  in  a  close  receptacle  that  has  been  thor- 
oughly scalded  and  aired.  If  bread  is  to  be  kept  for  more  than  two  or 
three  days  in  damp,  hot  weather,  the  jar  or  box  should  be  taken  out 
and  sunned  for  a  short  time  now  and  then,  and  again  scalded  and 
dried.  On  no  account  should  portions  of  a  former  baking  be  stored 
with  a  new  batch. 

Cake  and  cookies  should  be  cooled  after  baking  and  kept  in  tin 
boxes  or  in  earthenware  jars,  which,  like  bread  boxes,  should  be 
often  scalded  and  aired.  Even  if  these  foods  are  to  be  eaten  at  the 
next  meal  it  is  well  to  keep  them  in  some  such  receptacle,  as  it  insures 
protection  from  dust.  A  cake,  pudding,  or  pie  put  out  of  a  window 
uncovered  to  cool  or  in  any  other  place  where  it  is  exposed  to  dust, 
and  in  summer  also  to  flies,  is  something  that  no  careful  housewife 
would  place  on  her  table  if  she  stopped  to  think  how  easily  the  food 
may  be  contaminated. 

CANNED  FRUITS  AND  OTHER  CANNED  GOODS. 

Commercial  canned  goods  may  be  advantageously  bought  by  the 
dozen  in  the  autumn,  and  they  do  not  seem  to  suffer  from  even  a  poor 
storage  place,  provided  it  is  not  so  damp  that  the  cans  rust  through. 
If  dirty  or  dusty,  the  cans  should  always  be  carefully  wiped  before 
they  are  opened  to  prevent  accidental  soiling  of  the  contents. 

Vegetables  and  fruits  canned  at  home  and  homemade  jellies, 
jams,  and  similar  foods  should  be  kept  in  dry,  airy  storage  places,  out 
of  direct  light.  The  cans  and  jars  used  should  be  of  good  quality, 
and  all  the  usual  precautions  of  good  rubber  rings  (if  they  are  used), 
and  so  on,  should  be  taken.  These  matters  are  discussed  in  earlier 
bulletins0  of  this  series. 

Canning  may  also  be  made  use  of  daily  for  temporary  preservation 
of  food,  and  it  is  especially  valuable  where  ice-chest  facilities  are  not 
good.  When  making  soup  stock  a  large  quantity  is  made  as  easily 
as  a  small,  and  the  surplus  may  be  poured,  while  hot,  into  fruit  jars 
and  sealed.  Boiled  milk  may  be  thus  canned  and  cooked  vegetables 
which  may  be  at  the  time  plentiful  or  cheap.  Mince  meat  may 
also  be  canned,  but  it  will  keep  a  long  time  in  an  ordinary  receptacle 
if  melted  suet  be  poured  over  the  top. 

Such  canning,  especially  of  soup  stock  or  milk,  is  only  recom- 
mended for  a  few  days'  keeping,  and  every  precaution  should  be 
taken  that  is  familiar  in  the  ordinary  canning  of  fruit  or  vegetables. 

all.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Buls.  203  and  359. 
375 


CARE   OF   FOOD   IN    THE    HOME.  37 

LABELING  FOODS  IN  PACKAGES  AND  CANS. 

Many  otherwise  good  housekeepers  are  very  indifferent  about 
labeling.  They  trust  to  their  memory  as  to  what  is  in  each  jar  or 
package,  and  sometimes  with  disastrous  results.  All  stores  should 
be  plainly  labeled. 

CARE  AND  UTILIZATION  OF  FATS. 

Fats  that  are  derived  from  the  cooking  of  bacon,  ham,  chicken, 
beef,  and  other  meats,  should  be  kept,  each  in  its  own  receptacle,  to 
be  used  for  different  purposes. 

Home  rendering  of  both  suet  and  leaf  lard  has  its  advantages, 
because  the  product  is  generally  superior  to  what  can  be  bought  for 
the  same  price. 

Both  suet  and  leaf  lard  require  cooking  in  order  to  loosen  the  fat 
from  the  tougher  membrane  that  holds  it.  For  this  purpose  the 
material  is  cut  in  small  pieces  and  covered  with  water  and  allowed  to 
cook  slowly  for  some  time  until  no  more  water  remains  and  the  scrap 
has  turned  to  a  light  brown. 

A  better  method  for  suet  is  that  used  by  German  housewives,  who 
economize  on  butter  by  the  use  of  beef  fat  more  than  do  American 
housekeepers.  The  suet  is  cut  in  small  pieces  and  covered  with 
water,  in  which  it  is  allowed  to  soak  for  a  day,  the  water  being  changed 
once  in  the  time.  It  is  then  drained  and  put  into  an  iron  kettle  with 
one-half  teacup  of  skim  milk  to  every  pound  of  the  suet.  It  should 
be  cooked  very  slowly  until  the  sound  of  boiling  entirely  ceases. 
When  it  has  partly  cooled,  it  should  be  carefully  poured  off.  This 
fat  has  no  unpleasant  taste  or  odor,  and  in  many  recipes  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  part  of  the  butter.  Some  cooks  add  a  pound  of  leaf  lard 
to  4  or  5  of  the  suet;  this  makes  a  softer  fat,  as  lard  has  a  lower  melt- 
ing point  than  beef  fat. 

An  old-fashioned  method  of  clarifying  fat  from  the  soup  kettle,  or 
from  cooked  meats,  so  that  it  may  be  used  in  the  kitchen,  is  to  add 
the  cold  fat  to  a  liberal  quantity  of  cold  water,  then  heat  slowly  and 
let  cook  for  an  hour  or  more.  When  cold,  the  cake  of  fat  is  removed 
and  the  lower  portion,  which  will  contain  the  small  particles  of  meat, 
etc.,  should  be  scraped  away  and  the  white,  clean  fat  saved.  If  the 
flavor  or  color  or  both  are  not  satisfactory  the  process  may  be  repeated 
several  times.  Another  method  which  is  often  recommended  is  to 
cook  a  number  of  slices  of  raw  potato  in  the  boiling  fat. 

When  an  ice  chest  is  used  fat  in  small  quantities  may  be  easily  kept 
sweet  for  cooking  purposes.  If  lard  is  rendered  at  home  in  quantity 
sufficient  for  a  long  time,  it  should  be  kept  covered  in  tins  or  aarthen 
jars,  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  as  in  a  cellar  or  storeroom. 

375 


38  CAKE   OF  FOOD  IN   THE   HOME. 

In  some  families  where  fat  from  cooked  meats  is  not  used  in  the 
kitchen  it  is  made  into  soap  for  laundry  or  even  toilet  use.  Direc- 
tions for  making  soap  at  home  may  be  found  in  most  good  books  on 
housekeeping.  Some  questions  concerned  with  soap  making  at  home 
are  considered  in  a  discussion  of  laundry  and  other  cleaning  problems 
by  Miss  Rose,0  of  the  Home  Economics  Department  of  the  Agricul- 
tural College  at  Cornell  University. 

Cooking  butter  may  be  bought  at  a  lower  price  than  table  butter, 
but  it  should  be  rendered  before  using.  It  may  be  £  >und  to  have  some 
degree  of  rancidity,  and  to  correct  this  condition  there  must  be  mixed 
with  it  one-fourth  to  1  teaspoonful  of  baking  soda  to  the  pound.  It 
should  be  melted  and  cooked  down  slowly  until  the  froth  rises  and  the 
sound  of  cooking  ceases,  then  skimmed  and  poured  off  carefully  from 
the  dregs.  Unless  to  be  used  immediately,  one-half  tablespoonful  of 
salt  per  pound  should  be  added.  One-third  less  of  this  clarified  butter 
is  equivalent  to  the  quantity  of  ordinary  butter  called  for  in  any 
recipe.  In  India  and  some  other  tropical  countries  this  rend' 
butter,  called  "ghee"  or  some  other  special  name,  is  a  product  much 
used  by  the  native  population,  and  through  their  example  by  others, 
who  have  found  by  long  experience  that  butter  will  keep  in  good 
condition  in  this  form  while  it  would  generally  spoil  if  stored  as 
made. 

HANDLING  OF  FOOD  AND  UTENSILS  IN  THE  KITCHEN. 

The  handling  of  food  before  it  reaches  the  home  is  a  matter  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  the  housekeeper,  as  it  has  a  very  important 
relation  to  the  condition  of  the  food  and  to  its  keeping  qualities, 
wholesomeness,  and  other  characteristics  after  it  is  purchased. 

In  preceding  sections  it  has  been  shown  what  are  the  dangers  from 
market  dirt  and  dust,  from  flies  and  other  animal  life,  from  the  soiled 
hands  and  garments  and  utensils  of  butcher  and  grocer,  milkman, 
and  delivery  boy.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  when  the  food 
reaches  our  door  much  of  it  is  an  object  of  suspicion,  and  this  will  be 
the  case  until  market  inspection  is  far  better  than  at  present.  But 
we  have  now  to  consider  what  treatment  shall  be  given  to  perishable 
food  when  it  comes  into  the  kitchen. 

MEATS. 

The  dealer  must  be  especially  enjoined  to  tie  up  the  meat  in  a 
secure  package,  else  the  brown  paper  in  which  it  is  loosely  wrapped 
will  not  protect  it  thoroughly  in  transit.  This  paper  should  not  go 
with  the  meat  into  the  ice  box. 


a  The  Laundry:  Cornell  Reading  Courses  fur  Farmers'  Wives,  n.  s.  1,  Sanitation, 
1909,  No.  3. 
375 


CAEE   OF   FOOD   IX   THE' HOME.  39 

When  meat  is  received  the  skin  side  should  be  rubbed  with  a  cloth 
wet  in  hot  water  and  then  carefully  scraped  with  a  knife.  The  thin 
outer  skin  of  lamb  should  be  entirely  removed  in  order  to  avoid  the 
disagreeable  taste  due  to  any  contact  with  the  hair  of  the  animal. 
The  cut  surface  should  also  be  carefully  scraped,  and,  to  prevent  dry- 
ing, be  covered  with  paraffin  paper  or  rubbed  with  salad  oil,  or,  in 
case  the  meat  is  to  be  kept  for  some  time,  entirely  covered  with 
melted  suet.     The  meat  should  then  be  put  on  a  plate  in  the  ice  box. 

POULTRY. 

The  skin  of  poultry  is  frequently  very  dirty  when  brought  from 
market  and  fowls  should  be  not  only  washed,  but  scrubbed  with  a 
soft  brush  and  warm  water  in  which  a  teaspoonful  of  baking  soda 
has  been  dissolved.  Such  treatment  will  prevent  the  disagreeable 
"henny  "  taste  often  noticeable  in  cooked  poultry. 

Poultry  should  be  drawn  immediately,  and  unless  it  is  known  to 
have  been  killed  very  recently  it  should  be  thoroughly  washed  on 
the  inside  and  used  soon.  Poultry  that  is  drawn  directly  after 
killing,  on  the  contrary,  keeps  better  if  it  is  not  washed  until  used. 
(See  also  p.  23.)  It  should  be  hung  in  a  cold  place  or  put  in  the  ice 
box  with  a  piece  of  charcoal  inside  the  body. 

Cold-storage  chickens  should  under  no  circumstances  remain  in  a 
warm  room  before  cooking.  Such  poultry  must  be  kept  at  a  low 
temperature  and  cooked  as  soon  as  possible.  All  cold-storage  food 
when  brought  into  a  warm  temperature  spoils  quickly,  and  without 
doubt  many  cases  of  illness  traced  to  the  use  of  such  food  are  really 
due  to  careless  handling  and  delay  in  cooking. 

WASHING  VEGETABLES. 

If  deteriorated  vegetables  are  brought  into  the  kitchen  no  method 
of  handling  will  restore  them  to  first-class  condition.  Even  good 
ones  will  not  be  at  their  best  unless  they  are  properly  cared  for  after 
being  received.  After  all  that  has  been  said  in  this  bulletin  regard- 
ing the  possibilities  of  dangerous  micro-organisms  having  lodged 
upon  vegetables,  it  may  seem  superfluous  to  insist  again  that  any 
which  are  to  be  eaten  raw  should  be  thoroughly  washed.  It  is  of 
course  useless  to  wash  them  with  water  which  is  itself  dangerous,  and 
in  any  case  where  the  water  supply  is  not  considered  safe  for  drink- 
ing, boiled  water  should  be  used  for  washing  vegetables  and  fruit  after 
the  first  rough  dirt  has  been  removed  by  hydrant  water. 

As  to  the  method  of  washing  vegetables,  a  few  cautions  are  in 
order.  Some  people  never  choose  asparagus  at  table  unless  it  has 
been  prepared  by  some  one  who  is  very  careful,  as  they  do  not  wish 
to  bite  down  on  sand,  for  the  cleaning  of  this  vegetable  requires  con- 

375 


40  CAEE   OF   FOOD   IN    THE   HOME. 

science  as  well  as  care.  The  bunch  should  be  placed,  heads  down,  in 
water  for  some  hours  and  should  be  shaken  back  and  forth  to  dis- 
lodge the  particles  of  earth.  Spinach  is  another  vegetable  which 
requires  the  best  cleansing  to  free  it  from  grit.  After  the  roots  have 
been  cut  off  it  should  be  washed  in  a  number  of  waters  and  lifted 
out  of  the,  pan  each  time  in  Jocse  handfuls  before  the  water  has  been 
drained  off. 

Celery  and  lettuce  and  other  salad  plants,  because  eaten  raw, 
must  be  washed  with  the  greatest  care.  They  should  be  searched 
leaf  by  leaf  for  insect  life,  washed  in  several  waters,  and  then  wiped 
dry  with  a  clean  cloth  and  put  in  a  cold  place  to  become  crisp. 

WASHING  FRUITS. 

A  German  investigator,  B.  Ehrlich,a  having  estimated  by  careful 
experiments  the  number  of  bacteria  to  be  found  on  market  fruit, 
tried  different  methods  of  washing  it  without  injuring  the  flavor. 
He  washed  grapes,  apples,  and  pears  that  had  been  exposed  to  street 
dust,  each  time  examining  the  wash  water  for  the  number  of  bacteria 
present.  While  the  first  wash  water  yielded  large  numbers,  the 
second  contained  only  a  few,  and  the  third  a  negligible  number.  A 
basin  of  water  was  used  for  the  purpose,  the  fruit  being  moved  about 
in  it.  When  running  water  was  used,  five  minutes'  time  was  allowed. 
Fruits  with  a  firm,  smooth  skin  should  be  rubbed  before  washing 
with  a  clean  cloth  to  start  the  dirt. 

The  cleaning  of  delicate  berries  is  a  difficult  matter.  Such  fruit 
should  be  purchased  with  care  to  avoid  all  that  are  too  soft  or 
which  show  sand  or  other  visible  dirt.  Strawberries,  because  they 
grow  so  near  the  ground,  should  not  be  purchased  after  a  rain, 
which  will  spatter  them  with  muddy  drops.  Only  the  freshest 
and  cleanest  berries  should  be  served  raw;  more  doubtful  specimens 
should  be  cooked.  By  immersing  them  in  water  a  few  at  a  time  and 
handling  carefully,  such  fruits  may  be  washed  without  much  loss  of 
flavor.  These  matters  are  also  discussed  in  an  earlier  bulletin  6  of 
this  series. 

Dried  figs  and  dates  are  very  commonly  eaten  without  cooking,  or 
even  washing,  and  yet  they  have  been  exposed  for  an  unknown 
length  of  time  to  the  contagion  brought  by  dust,  flies,  and  dirty 
hands.  In  how  many  houses  are  oranges  washed  before  they  are 
brought  to  the  table,  or  the  lemon  before  it  is  sliced  for  the  tea  or 
lemonade,  or  before  the  skin  is  grated  for  flavoring?  Yet  the  skin  is 
often  very  dirty. 

Shelled  nuts  purchased  in  market  should  always  be  washed  and 
scalded  before  they  are  used,  as  they  are  commonly  exposed  to  dust, 

a  Arch.  Hyg.,  41  (1901),  p.  152.  &  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  293. 

375 


CARE   OF  FOOD   IN   THE   HOME.  41 

and  perhaps  to  flies.     The}'  can  afterwards  be  dried  on  a  clean  cloth 
before  using. 

Many  careful  housewives  wash  nuts  in  the  shell  before  cracking, 
as  this  prevents  accidental  soiling  of  the  kernels. 

WASHING  EGGS. 

The  ordinary  way  to  break  an  egg  is  to  hit  it  against  another  egg 
or  over  the  edge  of  the  mixing  bowl  and  let  the  contents  stream  over 
the  side  of  the  shell  without  considering  whether  the  latter  is  clean  or 
not.  Even  if  there  is  no  visible  dirt,  the  shell  may  not  be  as  clean 
as  it  seems,  for  it  may  have  come  from  a  dirty  nest  or  have  been 
untidily  handled.  Eggs  should  therefore  always  be  washed  before 
breaking. 

DISHWASHING. 

The  bacteriologist  finds  no  kitchen  clean  enough  and  the  ordinary 
methods  of  washing  dishes  he  is  likely  to  call  a  "smear." 

Dishes  have  been  tested  to  determine  the  number  of  organisms 
that  remain  on  them  after  "ordinary"  washing  as  compared  with  a 
method  that  requires  an  application  of  hot  water  with  the  help  of 
soap  or,  better  still,  carbonate  of  soda,  a  thorough  rinsing  in  hot  water, 
and  wiping  with  a  sterilized  cloth  (that  is,  one  which  has  been  in 
boiling  water  since  it  was  used  before).  By  this  latter  method  the 
dishes  were  practically  sterile  while  many  organisms  were  left  on  the 
dishes  that  were  washed  by  the  "ordinary"  method. 

One  might  ask  what  harm  will  they  do  if  present.  Oftentimes 
none,  but  if  the  bacteria  are  those  which  convey  disease,  dirty  dishes 
may  be  the  means  of  giving  it  to  well  persons.  But  most  of  all, 
persons  who  are  at  all  thoughtful  of  such  things  do  not  want  any 
dirt  which  may  be  prevented  by  good  methods,  simply  because  dirt 
in  itself  is  sufficiently  unpleasant. 

In  washing  milk  utensils  it  is  first  necessary  to  remove  with  warm 
water  all  traces  of  the  milk  before  scalding  water  is  used.  Because 
of  the  cream  adhering  to  the  sides  soap  is  used  also,  but  the  greatest 
care  must  be  taken  to  remove  by  repeated  rinsing  every  trace  of 
soap.  A  telltale  flavor  of  soap  in  the  morning  cream  has  more  than 
once  revealed  careless  habits  in  the  kitchen,  and  made  it  evident 
that  all  the  soap  was  not  removed  in  rinsing.  The  utensils  must 
then  be  dipped  into  absolutely  boiling  water  for  a  moment. 

It  is  an  important  matter  to  wash  the  milk  bottle  in  which 
milk  is  now  commonly  delivered  to  customers.  By  this  we  refer 
to  the  wTashing  of  the  full  bottle  before  it  is  opened.  It  is  safe  to 
say  that  this  is  seldom  done.  But  notice  the  bottle  as  it  is  brought 
into  the  kitchen,  the  milkman  grasping  it  with  his  hand  over  the  top. 
These  hands  perhaps  more  often  than  not  have  harnessed  his  horse, 

375 


42  CAEE   OF   FOOD   IX   THE   HOME. 

have  been  grasping  the  reins  all  the  morning,  have  opened  and  shut 
doors,  ran  along  stair  railings,  have  perhaps  wiped  mouth  or  nose, 
and  yet  the  thoughtless  housekeeper  or  cook,  regarding  the  white 
cap  as  full  security  from  the  outer  world,  pours  out  the  milk  over 
a  very  dirty  bottle  brim.  Milk  bottles  should  be  put  under  the  hot 
water  spigot  for  a  moment  and  wiped  dry  with  a  clean  cloth  before 
opening.  Most  housewives  agree  that  milk  bottles  should  be  carefully 
rinsed  before  they  are  returned,  perhaps  more  from  a  feeling  for 
cleanliness  than  for  absolute  necessity,  as  the  milk  bottles  in  all  well- 
managed  dairies  are  thoroughly  scrubbed  and  washed  before  refilling. 
If  such  violations  of  this  practice  as  recently  came  under  observation 
are  noted,  when*the  driver  of  a  dairy  wagon  washed  out  some  milk 
bottles  in  a  public  drinking  fountain  provided  for  horses,  refilled  them, 
and  disposed  of  them  to  other  customers,  complaint  should  be  made 
to  the  dairy,  and  if  this  is  not  sufficient,  to  the  board  of  health. 

CARE  OF  THE  WATER  COOLER. 

Water  is  an  indispensable  food  adjunct  and  so  may  be  properly 
spoken  of  here.  The  water  and  the  ice  supply  should  both  be  above 
suspicion.  The  question  of  wells,  water,  and  ice  supply  has  been 
discussed  in  earlier  bulletins  of  this  series. a  The  greatest  care  should 
be  taken  to  keep  clean  and  in  good  condition  all  vessels  in  which 
water  is  used  for  household  purposes.  Water  coolers,  if  used,  should 
be  of  some  material  like  porcelain  or  enameled  ware  which  is  easily 
kept  clean.  They  should  be  scalded  out  at  frequent  intervals.  The 
ice,  if  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  water,  should  be  of  known  quality. 
If  such  ice  can  not  be  secured,  a  water  cooler  should  be  used  in  which 
the  ice  is  in  a  separate  receptacle  and  does  not  come  in  contact  with 
the  water.  Many  families  cool  drinking  water  by  putting  it  in  the  ice 
box  in  glass  fruit  jars  or  bottles.  Perfect  clearness  is  an  indication  of 
purity  in  ice.  Cloudy  ice  full  of  bubbles  or  snow  ice  should  not  be 
used  in  direct  contact  with  food,  and  ice  which  contains  dirt  of 
various  kinds  frozen  in  it  should  be  regarded  with  suspicion. 

If  it  is  believed  that  the  water  is  not  pure,  it  may  be  boiled  or 
filtered,  or  both.  If  filters  are  used,  every  precaution  should  be 
taken  to  keep  them  clean  and  in  good  condition  and  to  rely  only  on 
such  as  really  purify  the  water.  Earthenware  filters  may  be  sterilized 
by  placing  in  a  pan  or  kettle  of  water  and  boiling  them  out  after  they 
have  been  thoroughly  scrubbed  with  a  brush.  A  small  piece  of 
wood  should  be  placed  under  the  jar  to  prevent  direct  contact  with 
the  bottom  of  the  pan. 

The  water  cooler  in  public  places  should  always  be  in  charge  of  a 
responsible  person  who  will  keep  it  clean  and  in  good  condition. 

a  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bula.  43,  73,  262,  309. 
375 


CAEE   OF   FOOD   IN   THE   HOME.  43 

Some  sort  of  a  sanitary  drinking  fountain  is  desirable.  The  public 
drinking  cup  of  the  sort  usually  seen  should  not  be  permitted.  It  is 
uncleanly  and  furnishes  a  ready  means  of  transmitting  disease. 

Recent  experiments  made  by  the  Kansas  State  Board  of  Health  a 
give  results  which  are  in  accord  with  the  work  of  other  investigators 
and  plainly  showed  the  presence  of  mouth  bacteria  and  other  micro- 
organisms, including  those  which  cause  pneumonia,  on  drinking  cups 
from  an  office  building,  a  ward  school,  and  a  railroad  station.  This 
means  that  the  user  of  the  public  drinking  cup  runs  the  risk  of  taking 
into  his  mouth  more  or  less  of  the  saliva  of  some  other  person  and 
may  take  with  it  micro-organisms  causing  virulent  disease  as  well  as 
the  ordinary  mouth  bacteria  which  are  doubtless  harmless.  These 
unpleasant  and  dangerous  features  may  be  avoided  by  the  use  of 
proper  drinking  fountains  and  cups. 

In  many  homes  a  glass  or  cup  is  placed  by  the  water  pail  or  water 
cooler  and  is  used  by  all  the  members  of  the  family.  Such  a  custom 
should  not  be  followed.  Although  it  is  necessarily  less  dangerous 
than  the  public  drinking  cup,  it  is  not  a  cleanly  practice  and  is  many 
times  without  doubt  responsible  for  the  spread  of  colds  and  other 
minor  ailments  throughout  a  family. 

PERSONAL  CLEANLINESS  IN  THE  KITCHEN. 

There  may  sometimes  be  observed  in  the  cooked  dish  a  loss  of 
flavor,  not  a  bad  taste,  but  a  lack  of  what  is  appetizing.  It  would  be 
interesting  to  know  in  how  many  cases  this  comes  from  a  lack  of 
cleanliness  in  utensils  and  methods. 

Personal  cleanliness  is  of  course  essential  in  the  kitchen,  and  every 
good  housekeeper  endeavors  to  maintain  a  high  standard  in  such 
matters.  Some  food  manufactories  make  special  efforts  to  secure 
cleanliness  and  hygienic  surroundings,  and  the  good  example  they  set 
should  be  generally  followed. 

"Food  and  fingers  are  carriers  of  contagion."  The  proper  way 
of  washing  the  hands,  if  seriously  taught  and  seriously  practiced,  in 
the  market  and  in  the  kitchen,  would  go  far  to  remove  the  source  not 
only  of  infection  but  of  such  additions  to  the  food  as  are  disgusting 
to  think  of.  In  this  matter  some  food  manufactories  are  cleaner  in 
their  methods  than  are  our  kitchens.  In  one  large  bakery,  where 
information  was  collected,  the  rule  is  in  force  that  every  employee 
shall  wash  his  hands  on  returning  to  the  room  after  leaving  it  for  any 
purpose  whatever. 

The  running  tap,  like  the  shower  bath,  offers  a  great  improvement 
over  old  methods  of  washing.  Few  will  have  patience  to  fill  and 
refill  the  hand  basin  until  the  hands  are  bathed  at  last  in  clean  water, 

a  Bui.  Kans.  Bd.  Health,  5  (1909),  No.  3,  p.  76. 
375 


44  CAKE   OF   FOOD   IN   THE   HOME. 

but  this  result  is  easily  accomplished  under  the  tap.  The  nailbrush 
and  nail  cleaner  must  have  their  place  in  the  kitchen,  and  their  use 
must  be  insisted  on  before  bread  or  cake  is  mixed  and  after  work  at 
all  soiling  in  character. 

Every  one  will  admit  that  there  is  need  for  exercising  great  care 
in  coughing  and  sneezing  wherever  such  necessary  acts  may  be 
annoying  to  others.  When  one  recalls  that  experiment  has  shown 
that  a  fine  spray  of  saliva  may  be  thrown  in  all  directions  for  a  dis- 
tance of  4  or  5  feet  by  a  violent  sneeze  or  cough  and  that  often  the 
cause  of  the  cough  or  sneeze  is  something  which  can  be  thus  com- 
municated to  others,  it  is  evident  that  there  is  abundant  reason  for 
caution.  Particularly  is  this  essential  wherever  food  is  prepared, 
exposed,  or  served. 

USE  OF  PAPER  IN  THE  KITCHEN. 

Paper  has  many  uses  in  the  kitchen.  The  cook  needs  a  piece  of 
paper  on  which  to  drain  the  fried  croquette  or  fritter  and  she  reaches 
out  for  the  brown  paper  that  came  around  the  meat  or  for  the  grocer's 
bag.  She  turns  to  the  same  source  when  she  wishes  paper  lor  lining 
a  cake  pan.  A  little  reflection  will  show  how  far  from  cleanly  is  this 
practice. 

In  every  kitchen  should  be  found  a  roll  of  grocer's  paper  on  its 
frame.  You  are  sure  here  of  something  that  has  not  been  handled 
since  it  was  rolled  up  by  machinery  in  the  factory.  Paraffin  paper 
should  also  be  at  hand  for  covering  food,  for  wrapping  up  sandwiches 
for  school  lunches,  and  for  similar  purposes. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  GOOD  HOUSE  PLANS  AND  HOME  CONVEN- 
IENCES. 

The  care  of  food  in  the  home  and  all  other  forms  of  household 
work  are  greatly  facilitated  by  right  planning  and  the  use  of  suitable 
materials  for  the  construction  and  furnishing  of  the  home.  An 
adequate  and  convenient  water  supply  and  other  conveniences  are 
essential,  not  only  for  comfort  and  for  saving  labor,  but  also  from 
the  standpoint  of  home  hygiene.  The  question  of  home  conveniences, 
the  arrangement  of  a  kitchen,  and  similar  topics  are  considered  in 
other  bulletins0  of  this  series  and  in  many  volumes  on  the  house 
and  house  construction.6 


a  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Buls.  270,  317,  342. 

b  The  Healthful  Farmhouse.    Boston,  1906.    The  House,  Its  Plan,  Decoration, 
and  Care.     Isabel  Bevier.    Chicago,  1907. 
375 


CAEE   OF   FOOD   IX    TEE    HOME.  45 

CLEANLINESS  IN  PUBLIC  EATING  PLACES. 

The  sanitary  condition  of  kitchens  and  the  food  service  in  hotels 
and  other  places  where  food  is  served  to  the  public  is  a  matter  to 
which  most  persons  who  patronize  them  have  given  at  least  occa- 
sional thought. 

Perhaps  the  most  common  attitude  toward  this  subject  of  the 
"temporary  home,"  as  toward  markets  and  other  places  where  food 
is  handled  or  prepared  before  it  reaches  the  home  kitchen,  is  that  it 
is  least  disturbing  to  put  it  out  of  mind  and  to  forget  unpleasant 
things  which,  it  is  assumed,  can  not  be  remedied. 

This  is  not  the  right  attitude,  for  the  subject  has  a  direct  relation 
to  comfort  and  to  health  and  is  one  in  which  public  sentiment  is  per- 
haps the  chief  factor  in  securing  regulation.  Legislation  regarding 
the  inspection  and  regulation  of  hotels,  restaurants,  and  other  places 
where  meals  are  served  is  in  force  in  some  cities  and  contemplated 
in  others.  The  results  of  the  inspection  of  restaurant  and  lunch-room 
kitchens  in  Washington,  D.  C,  by  the  board  of  health  indicates  that 
the  matter  is  one  which  needs  to  be  under  control,  and  concerning 
which  the  public  has  a  right  to  full  information,  so  that  the  clean 
places  may  be  patronized  and  the  others  avoided. 

Proper  ventilation  in  hotel  and  restaurant  kitchens,  suitable  sani- 
tary conveniences  for  employees,  and  whatever  else  makes  for  clean 
food  are  matters  of  public  hygiene  which  are  of  the  same  importance 
as  is  the  case  with  bakeries,  markets,  candy  factories,  and  other  places 
where  food  is  handled. 

There  are  other  matters  which  are  also  worth  considering  in  this 
connection. 

It  is  no  very  uncommon  thing  to  notice  in  a  hotel,  restaurant,  or 
dining  car,  and  often  in  those  which  pride  themselves  on  the  excel- 
lence of  their  service,  practices  which  would  not  be  permitted  if  due 
attention  was  paid  to  all  matters  of  hygiene.  For.  instance,  it  may 
be  sometimes  noted  that  finger  bowls  which  have  not  been  washed 
since  a  previous  service  are  placed  before  guests.  Soiled  napkins 
may  also  be  seen  occasionally  in  use  for  wiping  off  table  dishes  before 
service.  It  is  certain  that  such  practices  where  they  exist  would  not 
continue  if  supervision  by  the  management  was  as  thorough  as  it 
should  be  or  if  patrons  were  not  indifferent  to  them  or  lacking  in 
observation. 

The  public  owes  a  duty  to  the  management  in  such  matters  and 
all  such  violations  of  the  laws  of  hygiene  and  cleanliness  should  be 
reported  to  the  proper  person.  Here,  as  in  most  other  instances,  the 
remedy  lies  in  the  hands  of  the  public. 

375 


46  CAEE   OF   FOOD   IN   THE   HOME. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  ground  for  a  general  suspicion  of 
the  methods  in  use  in  hotels  and  restaurants.  Probably  in  the  majority 
of  cases  a  great  deal  of  attention  is  given  to  kitchen  and  serving-room 
equipment,  which  is  designed  as  regards  both  material  and  method 
of  construction  in  such  a  way  that  it  may  be  readily  kept  clean,  and 
good  hotels  and  restaurants  are  constantly  endeavoring  to  make  sure 
that  food  is  handled,  cooked,  and  served  in  a  cleanly  manner.  In 
general,  carefully  managed  hotels  welcome  inspection  of  their-  kitchens 
and  storerooms  by  visitors. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  the  preparation  of  food  must 
more  and  more  come  to  be  considered  as  an  occupation  that  requires 
of  the  person  who  undertakes  it  knowledge  and  habits  quite  beyond 
what  is  now  expected  of  a  person  who  is  simply  a  "good  cook." 

It  is  even  more  essential  that  the  housewife  who  buys  food  and  who 
attends  to  her  own  food  preparation  should  have  such  knowledge. 

375 

O 


Tk:-  «-— 


SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  UBRAHY  951388 

305De  Neve  Drive  -  ^^,^0095-1388 

LOS  ANGELES,  CAU.r  borrowed. 

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